{
  "abstract": "Tumor-released exosomes have emerged from the shadows of “cellular dust” to be recognized as pivotal mediators of intercellular communication within the tumor microenvironment (TME). These nano-sized vesicles (30–150 nm) carry a complex cargo of proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids that profoundly reshape anti-tumor immunity. This review comprehensively examines the dualistic nature of immune cell-derived exosomes in cancer progression, with particular focus on exosomes originating from B lymphoma cells, T lymphocytes, natural killer (NK) cells, and myeloid-derived suppressor cell lineages including tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), mast cells, and neutrophils. We delineate the mechanistic pathways through which these exosomes disrupt the cancer immunity cycle suppressing CD8+ T cell activation via PD-L1/PD-1 engagement, inducing lymphocyte apoptosis through FasL and TRAIL, promoting regulatory T cell expansion, polarizing macrophages toward the M2 immunosuppressive phenotype, and establishing pre-metastatic niches through MMP-mediated extracellular matrix remodeling. The molecular machinery governing exosome biogenesis including ESCRT-dependent and ceramide-mediated pathways is critically reviewed, alongside the selective packaging mechanisms that concentrate immunosuppressive miRNAs (miR-155, miR-21, miR-23a, miR-223) into exosomal compartments. Importantly, we highlight the emerging therapeutic premises targeting these vesicles: pharmacological inhibition of exosome secretion (GW4869, Rab27a knockdown), checkpoint blockade reversing exosomal PD-L1-mediated T cell exhaustion, and the engineering of immunostimulatory exosomes as cell-free cancer vaccines establishing exosomes not merely as biomarkers of disease progression but as actionable therapeutic targets. The clinical translation of exosome-based diagnostics including liquid biopsy platforms detecting circulating tumor-derived exosomes and therapeutics that include engineered exosomes delivering immunomodulatory cargo represents a frontier in precision cancer immunotherapy.",
  "abstract_shown": true,
  "affiliations": [
    "Prince Fahad Bin Sultan Chair for Biomedical Research, University of Tabuk",
    "Department of Medical Laboratory Technology, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, University of Tabuk",
    "Department of Surgical Oncology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tabuk",
    "Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Tabuk"
  ],
  "article_type": "review article",
  "arxiv": null,
  "author_total": 14,
  "authors": [
    {
      "affs": [
        0,
        1
      ],
      "name": "Rashid Mir"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        1
      ],
      "name": "Mohammad Fahad Ullah"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        1
      ],
      "name": "Mamdoh S. Moawadh"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        1
      ],
      "name": "Faisal H. Altemani"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        1
      ],
      "name": "Jameel Barnawi"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0,
        1
      ],
      "name": "Naseh A. Algehainy"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        1
      ],
      "name": "Mohammed M. Jalal"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        1
      ],
      "name": "Malik A. Altayar"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Reema M. Almotairi"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        1
      ],
      "name": "Faris J. Tayeb"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        1
      ],
      "name": "Ruqaiah I. Bedaiwi"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        1
      ],
      "name": "Kholoud S. Almasoudi"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        2
      ],
      "name": "Ibrahim Altedlawi Albalawi"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        3
      ],
      "name": "Aeshah A. Awaji"
    }
  ],
  "bibtex": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/13srf9ksevpnr.bib",
  "cited_by": 0,
  "doi": "10.3389/fimmu.2026.1902856",
  "fulltext_url": "https://europepmc.org/articles/PMC13714716",
  "id": "13srf9ksevpnr",
  "issns": [
    "1664-3224"
  ],
  "landing_url": "https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2026.1902856/full",
  "language": "eng",
  "licence": "CC-BY-4.0",
  "licence_label": "CC BY 4.0",
  "licence_source": "article",
  "licence_url": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
  "metadata_licence": null,
  "native_subjects": [
    [
      "heading",
      "Review"
    ],
    [
      "openalex",
      "1312|Extracellular vesicles in disease"
    ]
  ],
  "openalex": "W7221749819",
  "pdf_url": "https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/immunology/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2026.1902856/pdf",
  "pmcid": "PMC13714716",
  "pmid": "42953558",
  "published": "2026-10-14",
  "publisher": "Frontiers Media SA",
  "ris": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/13srf9ksevpnr.ris",
  "sources": [
    {
      "first_seen": "2026-10-30T12:19:17Z",
      "native_id": "10.3389/fimmu.2026.1902856",
      "source": "crossref",
      "url": "https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2026.1902856/full"
    },
    {
      "first_seen": "2026-10-31T00:20:41Z",
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    {
      "first_seen": "2026-11-01T12:22:09Z",
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      "url": "https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2026.1902856"
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  ],
  "subjects": [
    {
      "field": "biochemistry",
      "origin": "openalex:1312|Extracellular vesicles in disease",
      "subfield": "molecular-biology"
    }
  ],
  "title": "Immune cell-derived exosomes in the tumor microenvironment: mechanisms of immune evasion and emerging therapeutic strategies in cancer immunotherapy",
  "title_text": "Immune cell-derived exosomes in the tumor microenvironment: mechanisms of immune evasion and emerging therapeutic strategies in cancer immunotherapy",
  "type": "peer-reviewed",
  "updated_at": "2026-11-01T12:22:09Z",
  "url": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/13srf9ksevpnr",
  "venue": "Frontiers in Immunology",
  "versions": []
}