{
  "abstract": "Hybrid agricultural machines in mountainous orchards operate under low-speed, high-load conditions with coupled gradient and time-varying rolling-resistance disturbances. Their power demand is therefore nonstationary and may change abruptly. Rule-based and instantaneous strategies provide limited preview, whereas model predictive control (MPC) can transmit prediction errors directly to actuator commands and imposes substantial online computation. To address these limitations, a forward model was developed for a power-split hybrid agricultural machine comprising an engine, two electric machines, a traction battery, and a planetary gear set. A predictive-feedforward, multi-objective energy-management strategy was proposed. Short-horizon speed and gradient predictions are normalized, weighted, and saturated to form a bounded load-risk indicator. Rather than entering low-level torque calculation directly, this indicator modifies the dynamic state-of-charge (SOC) safety boundary, power-source mode, and transmission-ratio switching threshold, thereby softly decoupling prediction and execution. Engine high-efficiency operation, two transmission ratios, and actuator constraints are then coordinated for computationally efficient online power allocation. With offline dynamic programming (DP) as a common benchmark, the strategy achieved 93.29–95.59% of the DP performance over cycles C1–C3, exceeding MPC by 1.41–3.19 percentage points and adaptive equivalent-consumption minimization by 3.62–4.99 percentage points. Mean execution time was 0.128–0.191 ms per step, 93.54% lower than that of MPC, while terminal SOC remained near 0.600. No SOC, battery-current, or power-source torque constraint was violated under prediction noise or abrupt equivalent rolling-resistance disturbances. The conclusions apply to maintained, firm orchard lanes with low track slip; soft-soil operation involving high traction, severe sinkage, or substantial slip requires further validation. Bounded load-risk feedforward thus retained short-horizon preview while limiting direct error propagation, providing a practical real-time approach for hybrid agricultural machines with resource-constrained embedded controllers.",
  "abstract_shown": true,
  "affiliations": [
    "College of Electronics and Electrical Engineering, Chongqing University of Science and Technology, Chongqing, China",
    "Institute of Agricultural Science and Technology Information, Chongqing Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Chongqing, China"
  ],
  "article_type": "Research Article",
  "arxiv": null,
  "author_total": 7,
  "authors": [
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Zuojin Li"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        1
      ],
      "name": "Hao Huang"
    },
    {
      "name": "Linlu Dong"
    },
    {
      "name": "Xianfeng Zhang"
    },
    {
      "name": "Rui Zhou"
    },
    {
      "name": "Bo Li"
    },
    {
      "name": "Bao Yu"
    }
  ],
  "bibtex": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/1g7kqfza6wxmz.bib",
  "cited_by": 0,
  "doi": "10.1371/journal.pone.0360955",
  "fulltext_url": null,
  "id": "1g7kqfza6wxmz",
  "issns": [
    "1932-6203"
  ],
  "landing_url": "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0360955",
  "language": null,
  "licence": "CC-BY-4.0",
  "licence_label": "CC BY 4.0",
  "licence_source": "journal",
  "licence_url": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
  "metadata_licence": null,
  "native_subjects": [
    [
      "openalex",
      "2203|Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Technologies"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Biology and life sciences/Agriculture/Farms/Orchards"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Engineering and technology/Civil engineering/Transportation infrastructure/Roads"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Engineering and technology/Energy and power/Fuels"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Engineering and technology/Energy and power/Power distribution/Power grids"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Engineering and technology/Mechanical engineering/Actuators"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Engineering and technology/Mechanical engineering/Engines"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Engineering and technology/Mechanical engineering/Gears"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Engineering and technology/Transportation/Transportation infrastructure/Roads"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Physical sciences/Materials science/Materials/Fuels"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Physical sciences/Physics/Classical mechanics/Motion/Torque"
    ]
  ],
  "openalex": "W7222494161",
  "pdf_url": "https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0360955&type=printable",
  "pmcid": null,
  "pmid": null,
  "published": "2026-10-16",
  "publisher": "Public Library of Science",
  "ris": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/1g7kqfza6wxmz.ris",
  "sources": [
    {
      "first_seen": "2026-10-30T12:17:23Z",
      "native_id": "10.1371/journal.pone.0360955",
      "source": "plos",
      "url": "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0360955"
    }
  ],
  "subjects": [
    {
      "field": "chemistry",
      "origin": "plos:materials science",
      "subfield": "materials-polymers"
    }
  ],
  "title": "Predictive-feedforward energy management for a hybrid agricultural machine operating in mountainous orchards",
  "title_text": "Predictive-feedforward energy management for a hybrid agricultural machine operating in mountainous orchards",
  "type": "peer-reviewed",
  "updated_at": "2026-10-30T12:17:23Z",
  "url": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/1g7kqfza6wxmz",
  "venue": "PLOS One",
  "versions": []
}