{
  "abstract": "Shoulder injuries are one of the most common overuse problems in competitive swimming, yet objective, field-deployable methods for quantifying pain-related movement alterations remain limited. This study investigates whether bilateral IMU sensors placed on the upper humerus can identify kinematic bilateral waveform similarities tied to a history of shoulder pain in swimmers. In this study, thirty-four NCAA Division 1 collegiate swimmers and water polo players completed a standardized swimming test and were classified into moderate/severe pain (n = 22) and none/mild pain (n = 12) groups based on self-reported shoulder pain scores. Kinematic features were extracted and evaluated using statistical tests and machine learning classification. The none/mild pain group showed a higher peak left-right shoulder cross-correlation across all axes (0.85 vs. 0.78, p = 0.002). The best-performing model Classification accuracy for distinguishing between moderate/severe pain and none/mild pain conditions achieved a balanced accuracy of 70.6% (24/34 participants), with a balanced accuracy of 69.7% (95% CI [52.7-85.2%]) and an ROC AUC of 0.731 (95% CI [0.557-0.890]), suggesting that personalized machine learning approaches may be necessary to improve individual-level classification performance. Further investigation of intra-subject associations between shoulder pain history and kinematic bilateral waveform similarities is warranted to better understand their relationship and determine potential causal mechanisms.",
  "abstract_shown": true,
  "affiliations": [
    "Bioengineering Department, University of the Pacific, 3601 Pacific Ave, Stockton, CA 95211, USA."
  ],
  "article_type": "research article",
  "arxiv": null,
  "author_total": 3,
  "authors": [
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Ben Gronbach"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Kyle Capili"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Seyedeh Fatemeh Khatami Firoozabadi",
      "orcid": "0000-0002-0278-9012"
    }
  ],
  "bibtex": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/206efjh6jk9mc.bib",
  "cited_by": 0,
  "doi": "10.3390/s26206565",
  "fulltext_url": "https://europepmc.org/articles/PMC13709263",
  "id": "206efjh6jk9mc",
  "issns": [
    "1424-8220"
  ],
  "landing_url": "https://europepmc.org/article/MED/42944428",
  "language": "eng",
  "licence": "CC-BY",
  "licence_label": "CC BY",
  "licence_source": "article",
  "licence_url": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
  "metadata_licence": null,
  "native_subjects": [
    [
      "openalex",
      "2746|Shoulder Injury and Treatment"
    ]
  ],
  "openalex": "W7222432565",
  "pdf_url": "https://europepmc.org/articles/PMC13709263?pdf=render",
  "pmcid": "PMC13709263",
  "pmid": "42944428",
  "published": "2026-10-16",
  "publisher": null,
  "ris": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/206efjh6jk9mc.ris",
  "sources": [
    {
      "first_seen": "2026-10-30T12:22:12Z",
      "native_id": "MED:42944428",
      "source": "europepmc",
      "url": "https://europepmc.org/article/MED/42944428"
    }
  ],
  "subjects": [
    {
      "field": "medicine",
      "origin": "openalex:2746|Shoulder Injury and Treatment",
      "subfield": "surgery"
    }
  ],
  "title": "IMU-Based Bilateral Kinematic Waveform Analysis Associated with Shoulder Pain History in Competitive Swimmers.",
  "title_text": "IMU-Based Bilateral Kinematic Waveform Analysis Associated with Shoulder Pain History in Competitive Swimmers.",
  "type": "peer-reviewed",
  "updated_at": "2026-10-30T12:22:12Z",
  "url": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/206efjh6jk9mc",
  "venue": "Sensors (Basel, Switzerland)",
  "versions": []
}