{
  "abstract": "Objective: This study aimed to compare the performance and diagnostic accuracy of general dentists and different artificial intelligence (AI)-based large language models (LLMs), including their older and newer versions, in photograph-based IOTN-AC index assessments, using orthodontists’ evaluations as the reference standard. Methods: The mean IOTN-AC scores derived from orthodontists were established as the reference (gold) standard. Cases were evaluated by general dentists and both earlier and newer versions of the ChatGPT, Claude, and Gemini families. Performance was analyzed using mean absolute error (MAE), Spearman’s correlation, Lin’s concordance correlation coefficient (CCC), systematic bias (Bland-Altman analysis), and diagnostic accuracy metrics (sensitivity/specificity) based on the clinical treatment need threshold of IOTN-AC ≥4.0. Results: General dentists demonstrated the closest agreement with the reference standard, exhibiting the lowest MAE (0.761) and the highest CCC (0.901, 95% confidence interval: 0.796-0.948). Conversely, all AI models exhibited a positive bias by systematically overestimating aesthetic impairment (+0.761 to +3.361). In the longitudinal analysis, although newer iterations of LLMs showed improved ranking performance (correlation), they regressed in absolute accuracy compared to earlier versions, exhibiting increased MAE values (e.g., Gemini 3 Pro MAE increased from 2.529 to 3.406; p=0.023). At the IOTN-AC ≥4.0 threshold, while LLMs demonstrated high sensitivity (84.6-100.0%), they critically failed to distinguish healthy cases, resulting in extremely low specificity (e.g., 5.9% for Gemini 3 Pro). Conclusion: Within the limitations of this study’s sample and pooled evaluation design, general dentists demonstrated higher reliability and closer agreement with the reference standard than AI models in orthodontic aesthetic assessment. The architectural advancements in newer model versions did not translate positively into absolute clinical accuracy, creating a performance paradox. Although current LLMs show potential as preliminary screening tools due to their high sensitivity, they carry a significant risk of over-diagnosis owing to their low specificity, remaining far from being independent clinical decision support systems.",
  "abstract_shown": true,
  "affiliations": [
    "İstanbul Aydın University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Orthodontics, İstanbul, Türkiye"
  ],
  "article_type": null,
  "arxiv": null,
  "author_total": 2,
  "authors": [
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Rümeysa Cemre ÖNCÜ",
      "orcid": "0000-0002-7102-9324"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Aylin PAŞAOĞLU BOZKURT",
      "orcid": "0000-0001-8100-4684"
    }
  ],
  "bibtex": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/4pa27aqccwjt8.bib",
  "cited_by": 0,
  "doi": "10.14235/bas.galenos.2026.82085",
  "fulltext_url": "https://bezmialemscience.org/articles/comparative-analysis-of-aesthetic-judgment-between-orthodontists-general-dentists-and-different-versions-of-large-language-models-using-the-iotn-ac-index/doi/bas.galenos.2026.82085",
  "id": "4pa27aqccwjt8",
  "issns": [
    "2148-2373"
  ],
  "landing_url": "https://doi.org/10.14235/bas.galenos.2026.82085",
  "language": "en",
  "licence": "CC-BY-NC-ND",
  "licence_label": "CC BY-NC-ND",
  "licence_source": "journal",
  "licence_url": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/",
  "metadata_licence": null,
  "native_subjects": [
    [
      "lcc",
      "R5-920"
    ],
    [
      "openalex",
      "3505|Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics"
    ]
  ],
  "openalex": "W7204997717",
  "pdf_url": "https://bezmialemscience.org/pdf/bd1986e1-0bc1-4f4d-af66-3a184850a065/articles/bas.galenos.2026.82085/01-2026-82085.pdf",
  "pmcid": null,
  "pmid": null,
  "published": "2026-10-26",
  "publisher": "Bezmiâlem Vakif University",
  "ris": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/4pa27aqccwjt8.ris",
  "sources": [
    {
      "first_seen": "2026-10-31T14:21:14Z",
      "native_id": "05c6a374971849fc865d150b23f5fa2a",
      "source": "doaj",
      "url": "https://doi.org/10.14235/bas.galenos.2026.82085"
    }
  ],
  "subjects": [
    {
      "field": "medicine",
      "origin": "lcc:R5-920",
      "subfield": "general"
    }
  ],
  "title": "Comparative Analysis of Aesthetic Judgment between Orthodontists, General Dentists, and Different Versions of Large Language Models Using the IOTN-AC Index",
  "title_text": "Comparative Analysis of Aesthetic Judgment between Orthodontists, General Dentists, and Different Versions of Large Language Models Using the IOTN-AC Index",
  "type": "peer-reviewed",
  "updated_at": "2026-10-31T14:21:14Z",
  "url": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/4pa27aqccwjt8",
  "venue": "Bezmiâlem Science",
  "versions": []
}