{
  "abstract": "Photophobia encompasses a continuum of light-induced experiences from mild discomfort to overt pain and intolerance, yet clinical tools rarely quantify these distinctions, leaving many patients undiagnosed and untreated. This study employed the Ocular Photosensitivity Analyzer (OPA), a compact instrument for quantitative sensory testing (QST) with light, to investigate three perceptual levels in healthy adults: visual photosensitivity discomfort threshold (VPDT), visual photosensitivity pain threshold (VPPT), and an exploratory outcome, visual photosensitivity tolerance level (VPTol). Twenty-nine participants ages 19−34 underwent standardized OPA testing, during which they identified when light first became uncomfortable, painful, and intolerable. After each trial, participants rated the peak pain intensity (PI) and peak unpleasantness (UP) using visual analog scales. Measured illuminance values differed significantly across the perceptual levels (RM-ANOVA, N = 28, F(1.69, 45.6)=37.06, p < 0.001, ηp² = 0.58; Mauchly’s W = 0.82, p = 0.072), indicating sensory levels are differentiable. Post hoc t-tests revealed VPTol exceeded VPPT (N = 28, t(27)=−2.29, p = 0.030, dz = 0.43)), and both exceeded VPDT (VPTol: N = 29, t(28)=−7.69, p < 0.001, dz = 1.43, VPPT: N = 29, t(27)=−7.69, p < 0.001, dz = 1.47). Friedman’s test revealed UP (N = 28, χ2(2)=17.64, p < 0.001, Kendall’s W = 0.32) and PI (N = 28, χ2(2)=22.36, p < 0.001, Kendall’s W = 0.40) differences across perceptual levels and post hoc Wilcoxon tests showed UP and PI increased between VPDT and VPPT (UP: N = 29, Z = −4.34, p < 0.001, r = 0.57, PI: N = 29, Z = −4.58, p < 0.001, r = 0.60) and UP increased between VPDT and VPTol (N = 28, Z = −2.92, p = 0.007, r = 0.39), suggesting that both affective and sensory dimensions of pain vary across perceptual levels. Although preliminary, these findings are consistent with a multidimensional framework of photophobia. Additionally, the OPA’s ability to differentially quantify VPDT, VPPT, and VPTol offers a novel approach to characterize light sensitivity that may aid future assessment of abnormal light sensitivity.",
  "abstract_shown": true,
  "affiliations": [
    "Brain and Eye Pain Imaging Lab, Pain and Affective Neuroscience Center, Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America.",
    "Ophthalmic Biophysics Center, Department of Ophthalmology, Bascom Palmer Eye Institute, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, United States of America.",
    "Department of Ophthalmology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America."
  ],
  "article_type": "Research Article",
  "arxiv": null,
  "author_total": 10,
  "authors": [
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Nathan Goturi",
      "orcid": "0009-0000-6718-6768"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Cameron Talbert"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Nicholas Pondelis",
      "orcid": "0000-0003-4666-5801"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        1
      ],
      "name": "Mariela C Aguilar"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        1
      ],
      "name": "Alex Gonzalez"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        1
      ],
      "name": "Cornelis Rowaan"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        1
      ],
      "name": "Heather Durkee",
      "orcid": "0000-0002-5476-5813"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        1
      ],
      "name": "Jean-Marie Parel"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Vanda Faria"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0,
        2
      ],
      "name": "Eric Alan Moulton",
      "orcid": "0000-0002-7959-8441"
    }
  ],
  "bibtex": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/5bfq1wymaj0d6.bib",
  "cited_by": 0,
  "doi": "10.1371/journal.pone.0361637",
  "fulltext_url": "https://europepmc.org/articles/PMC13718949",
  "id": "5bfq1wymaj0d6",
  "issns": [
    "1932-6203"
  ],
  "landing_url": "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0361637",
  "language": "eng",
  "licence": "CC-BY",
  "licence_label": "CC BY",
  "licence_source": "article",
  "licence_url": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
  "metadata_licence": null,
  "native_subjects": [
    [
      "heading",
      "Anatomy"
    ],
    [
      "heading",
      "Biology and Life Sciences"
    ],
    [
      "heading",
      "Clinical Medicine"
    ],
    [
      "heading",
      "Cognitive Psychology"
    ],
    [
      "heading",
      "Cognitive Science"
    ],
    [
      "heading",
      "Electromagnetic Radiation"
    ],
    [
      "heading",
      "Eyes"
    ],
    [
      "heading",
      "Head"
    ],
    [
      "heading",
      "Light"
    ],
    [
      "heading",
      "Medicine and Health Sciences"
    ],
    [
      "heading",
      "Neuropathic Pain"
    ],
    [
      "heading",
      "Neuroscience"
    ],
    [
      "heading",
      "Ocular System"
    ],
    [
      "heading",
      "Ophthalmology"
    ],
    [
      "heading",
      "Pain"
    ],
    [
      "heading",
      "Pain Sensation"
    ],
    [
      "heading",
      "Perception"
    ],
    [
      "heading",
      "Physical Sciences"
    ],
    [
      "heading",
      "Physics"
    ],
    [
      "heading",
      "Physiology"
    ],
    [
      "heading",
      "Psychology"
    ],
    [
      "heading",
      "Research Article"
    ],
    [
      "heading",
      "Sensory Perception"
    ],
    [
      "heading",
      "Sensory Physiology"
    ],
    [
      "heading",
      "Sensory Systems"
    ],
    [
      "heading",
      "Signs and Symptoms"
    ],
    [
      "heading",
      "Social Sciences"
    ],
    [
      "heading",
      "Somatosensory System"
    ],
    [
      "heading",
      "Vision"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Biology and life sciences/Anatomy/Head/Eyes"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Biology and life sciences/Anatomy/Ocular system/Eyes"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Biology and life sciences/Neuroscience/Cognitive science/Cognitive psychology/Perception/Sensory perception"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Biology and life sciences/Neuroscience/Cognitive science/Cognitive psychology/Perception/Sensory perception/Vision"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Biology and life sciences/Neuroscience/Sensory perception"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Biology and life sciences/Neuroscience/Sensory perception/Vision"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Biology and life sciences/Neuroscience/Sensory systems/Somatosensory system/Pain sensation"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Biology and life sciences/Physiology/Sensory physiology/Somatosensory system/Pain sensation"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Biology and life sciences/Psychology/Cognitive psychology/Perception/Sensory perception"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Biology and life sciences/Psychology/Cognitive psychology/Perception/Sensory perception/Vision"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Medicine and health sciences/Anatomy/Head/Eyes"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Medicine and health sciences/Anatomy/Ocular system/Eyes"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Medicine and health sciences/Clinical medicine/Signs and symptoms/Pain"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Medicine and health sciences/Clinical medicine/Signs and symptoms/Pain/Neuropathic pain"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Medicine and health sciences/Ophthalmology"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Physical sciences/Physics/Electromagnetic radiation/Light"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Social sciences/Psychology/Cognitive psychology/Perception/Sensory perception"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Social sciences/Psychology/Cognitive psychology/Perception/Sensory perception/Vision"
    ]
  ],
  "openalex": null,
  "pdf_url": "https://europepmc.org/articles/PMC13718949?pdf=render",
  "pmcid": "PMC13718949",
  "pmid": "42955930",
  "published": "2026-10-29",
  "publisher": "Public Library of Science",
  "ris": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/5bfq1wymaj0d6.ris",
  "sources": [
    {
      "first_seen": "2026-10-30T12:17:17Z",
      "native_id": "10.1371/journal.pone.0361637",
      "source": "plos",
      "url": "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0361637"
    },
    {
      "first_seen": "2026-11-01T00:20:36Z",
      "native_id": "MED:42955930",
      "source": "europepmc",
      "url": "https://europepmc.org/article/MED/42955930"
    },
    {
      "first_seen": "2026-11-02T12:22:52Z",
      "native_id": "PMC13718949",
      "source": "pmc",
      "url": "https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0361637"
    }
  ],
  "subjects": [
    {
      "field": "biology",
      "origin": "plos:neuroscience",
      "subfield": "neuroscience"
    },
    {
      "field": "medicine",
      "origin": "plos:anatomy",
      "subfield": "physiology"
    },
    {
      "field": "physics",
      "origin": "heading:Physics",
      "subfield": "general"
    }
  ],
  "title": "Assessment of light sensitivity using the Ocular Photosensitivity Analyzer: Discomfort threshold, pain threshold, and tolerance in healthy volunteers",
  "title_text": "Assessment of light sensitivity using the Ocular Photosensitivity Analyzer: Discomfort threshold, pain threshold, and tolerance in healthy volunteers",
  "type": "peer-reviewed",
  "updated_at": "2026-11-02T12:22:52Z",
  "url": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/5bfq1wymaj0d6",
  "venue": "PLOS One",
  "versions": []
}