{
  "abstract": "Motivation: Combination therapies have demonstrated improved efficacy across diverse clinical settings. Predicting antibacterial drug synergy remains difficult due to strain variability and the limited scale of experimentally tested combinations. Existing machine-learning approaches for synergy prediction often rely on permissive cross-validation schemes that allow drug pairs to re-appear across folds, leading to inflated performance metrics. A rigorous evaluation framework and scalable feature representation are needed for robust generalization. Results: We assembled a curated dataset of 3,160 drug–pair–strain interactions covering 97 antibacterial compounds and 10 bacterial strains. We then developed HALO (Held-out Antibacterial interaction Learning from latent bioactivity Observations), a synergy-prediction framework in which each drug pair is encoded using multi-level Chemical Checker (CC) similarity features spanning chemical, targets, networks, cellular, and clinical bioactivity domains. Using strictly nested, drug-pair heldout cross validation with fold-internal feature selection, HALO achieved consistent generalization to unseen combinations (ROC–AUC = 0.78). Performance dropped notably under increasingly stringent heldout schemes and inflated under random data splits, underscoring the importance of rigorous evaluation for this task. Despite these conservative conditions, HALO transferred to two independent datasets, achieving ROC–AUC = 0.90 and 0.71 and average precision = 0.76 and 0.94 for distinguishing synergy from antagonism. Together, these results demonstrate that multi-level bioactivity signatures provide a scalable, interpretable basis for predicting antibacterial relationships, while clarifying the realistic performance limits of current models under truly leakage-free evaluation. Author summary: Bacterial infections are increasingly hard to treat as resistance to antibiotics spreads faster than new drugs are developed. One strategy to fight back is combining two drugs together, since some pairs work better together than either does alone (synergy), while others can interfere with each other (antagonism). Predicting which drug pairs will be synergistic before running costly lab experiments could speed up the search for effective combinations. However, existing computational models are often evaluated in ways that let the same drug pair appear in both training and testing data, making their reported performance overly optimistic and unreliable in practice. We built a machine-learning framework called HALO that predicts antibacterial drug synergy using multiple layers of biological and chemical similarity information, while strictly preventing any drug pair from being seen during both training and evaluation. Under this stricter, more realistic testing setup, HALO still generalized well to drug pairs it had never encountered, and its predictions held up on two independent external datasets. Our results show that combining diverse bioactivity signatures with rigorous evaluation gives a more trustworthy — if more conservative — picture of how well these models can prioritize new antibacterial drug combinations for experimental testing.",
  "abstract_shown": true,
  "affiliations": [
    "Department of Molecular Biotechnology, School of Biotechnology, College of Science, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran"
  ],
  "article_type": "Research Article",
  "arxiv": null,
  "author_total": 2,
  "authors": [
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Hannie Yousefabadi"
    },
    {
      "name": "Mahya Mehrmohamadi"
    }
  ],
  "bibtex": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/5frz2rz9yrjq2.bib",
  "cited_by": 1,
  "doi": "10.1371/journal.pcbi.1014849",
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    "1553-7358"
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  "language": null,
  "licence": "CC-BY-4.0",
  "licence_label": "CC BY 4.0",
  "licence_source": "journal",
  "licence_url": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
  "metadata_licence": null,
  "native_subjects": [
    [
      "openalex",
      "1703|Computational Drug Discovery Methods"
    ],
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      "plos",
      "/Biology and life sciences/Immunology/Vaccination and immunization/Antibacterial therapy"
    ],
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      "plos",
      "/Biology and life sciences/Microbiology/Bacteriology/Gram negative bacteria"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Biology and life sciences/Microbiology/Medical microbiology/Microbial pathogens/Bacterial pathogens/Escherichia coli"
    ],
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      "plos",
      "/Biology and life sciences/Microbiology/Microbial control/Antimicrobials/Antibacterials"
    ],
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      "plos",
      "/Biology and life sciences/Microbiology/Microbial control/Antimicrobials/Antibiotics"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Biology and life sciences/Microbiology/Microbial control/Antimicrobials/Antibiotics/Penicillin"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Biology and life sciences/Organisms/Bacteria/Enterobacteriaceae/Escherichia/Escherichia coli"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Biology and life sciences/Organisms/Bacteria/Gut bacteria/Escherichia/Escherichia coli"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Computer and information sciences/Software engineering/Preprocessing"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Engineering and technology/Software engineering/Preprocessing"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Medicine and health sciences/Immunology/Vaccination and immunization/Antibacterial therapy"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Medicine and health sciences/Pathology and laboratory medicine/Pathogens/Microbial pathogens/Bacterial pathogens/Escherichia coli"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Medicine and health sciences/Pharmacology/Drug interactions"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Medicine and health sciences/Pharmacology/Drugs/Antimicrobials/Antibacterials"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Medicine and health sciences/Pharmacology/Drugs/Antimicrobials/Antibiotics"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Medicine and health sciences/Pharmacology/Drugs/Antimicrobials/Antibiotics/Penicillin"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Medicine and health sciences/Public and occupational health/Preventive medicine/Vaccination and immunization/Antibacterial therapy"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Research and analysis methods/Animal studies/Experimental organism systems/Model organisms/Escherichia coli"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Research and analysis methods/Animal studies/Experimental organism systems/Prokaryotic models/Escherichia coli"
    ],
    [
      "plos",
      "/Research and analysis methods/Model organisms/Escherichia coli"
    ]
  ],
  "openalex": "W7220369501",
  "pdf_url": "https://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1014849&type=printable",
  "pmcid": null,
  "pmid": null,
  "published": "2026-10-05",
  "publisher": "Public Library of Science",
  "ris": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/5frz2rz9yrjq2.ris",
  "sources": [
    {
      "first_seen": "2026-10-30T12:17:37Z",
      "native_id": "10.1371/journal.pcbi.1014849",
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      "url": "https://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1014849"
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  "subjects": [
    {
      "field": "biology",
      "origin": "plos:microbiology",
      "subfield": "microbiology"
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    {
      "field": "medicine",
      "origin": "plos:pharmacology",
      "subfield": "pharmacology-toxicology"
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  "title": "Bioactivity-driven prediction of antibacterial synergy using machine learning models",
  "title_text": "Bioactivity-driven prediction of antibacterial synergy using machine learning models",
  "type": "peer-reviewed",
  "updated_at": "2026-10-30T12:17:37Z",
  "url": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/5frz2rz9yrjq2",
  "venue": "PLOS Computational Biology",
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}