{ "abstract": "Background\n\nDespite guideline-recommended treatment, approximately 30% of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients remain symptomatic and are classified as difficult-to-treat (D2T), representing an unmet clinical need. D2T RA is a heterogeneous state potentially involving differences across several biological and psychological levels, but the exact underlying mechanisms remain unclear. To capture this complexity, our multimodal cross-sectional study aimed to characterize the contributing factors of the D2T state with a multimodal approach.Methods\n\n31 D2T RA (defined by EULAR, 2021), 18 non-D2T RA patients, and 32 healthy controls (HCs) were included. All participants underwent a clinical assessment, psychological analysis (in-depth interviews, the Rorschach test, and questionnaires), two resting-state functional MRI (fMRI) scans with standardized heat pain stimulation in between, and peripheral blood transcriptomic analysis.Results\n\nThe activity and connectivity of brain regions, especially the somatosensory cortex and the posterior cingulate cortex, one of the main hubs of the default mode network (DMN), showed significant alterations in D2T RA. Furthermore, acute pain stimulation influenced connectivity patterns of D2T patients differently compared to non-D2T patients and HCs. These results are in line with the psychological profiles of D2T patients characterized by cognitive, coping, and emotional dysregulations as well as altered pain processing. Transcriptomic analysis identified mediators, pathways, and signaling mechanisms such as neuregulin 1 (NRG1) and type I interferon signaling associated with neuroinflammation and synaptic plasticity.Conclusion\n\nOur findings identify central nervous system (CNS) alterations as a meaningful contributor to the D2T RA phenotype, helping to explain persistent symptom burden beyond inflammation. These characteristic neuroimmune signatures support multidisciplinary, personalized interventions that target CNS processes alongside inflammation control to improve outcomes.", "abstract_shown": true, "affiliations": [ "Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary.", "Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary.", "HUN-REN-PTE Chronic Pain Research Group, Pécs, Hungary.", "HUN-REN-PTE Clinical Neuroscience MR Research Group, Pécs, Hungary.", "Department of Neurology, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary.", "Psychosomatic Outpatient Clinic, Budapest, Hungary.", "Ludovika University of Public Service, Budapest, Hungary.", "Institute of Psychology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary.", "Second Department of Medicine and Nephrology-Diabetes Centre, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary.", "Department of Rheumatology, Immunology and Musculoskeletal Rehabilitation, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary.", "Institute of Psychology, Department of General Psychology and Methodology Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Károli Gáspár University of the Reformed Church in Hungary, Budapest, Hungary.", "Brain Imaging Centre, HUN-REN Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Budapest, Hungary.", "Hungarian Centre for Genomics and Bioinformatics, Szentágothai Research Centre, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary.", "National Laboratory for Drug Research and Development, Budapest, Hungary.", "Department of Genetics, Cell and Immunobiology, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary.", "Department of Internal Medicine 3 - Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, Friedrich-Alexander-University (FAU) Erlangen-Nürnberg and Universitätsklinikum Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany.", "Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary. nagy.gyorgy2@semmelweis.hu.", "Department of Genetics, Cell and Immunobiology, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary. nagy.gyorgy2@semmelweis.hu.", "Heart and Vascular Centre, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary. nagy.gyorgy2@semmelweis.hu.", "Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary. helyes.zsuzsanna@pte.hu.", "HUN-REN-PTE Chronic Pain Research Group, Pécs, Hungary. helyes.zsuzsanna@pte.hu.", "National Laboratory for Drug Research and Development, Budapest, Hungary. helyes.zsuzsanna@pte.hu." ], "article_type": "research article", "arxiv": null, "author_total": 17, "authors": [ { "affs": [ 0, 1, 2 ], "name": "Lilla Gunkl-Tóth" }, { "affs": [ 3, 4 ], "name": "Gergely Orsi" }, { "affs": [ 5, 6 ], "name": "Noémi Császár-Nagy" }, { "affs": [ 5 ], "name": "Lili Duzsik" }, { "affs": [ 5 ], "name": "Gábor Mátay" }, { "affs": [ 7 ], "name": "Krisztina Csókási" }, { "affs": [ 8 ], "name": "Gábor Sütő" }, { "affs": [ 9 ], "name": "Gábor Kumánovics" }, { "affs": [ 10 ], "name": "Szabolcs Takács" }, { "affs": [ 11 ], "name": "Zoltán Vidnyánszky" }, { "affs": [ 1, 12, 13 ], "name": "József Kun" }, { "affs": [ 1 ], "name": "Krisztina Takács-Lovász" }, { "affs": [ 0 ], "name": "Anett Pintér" }, { "affs": [ 0, 14 ], "name": "Panna Királyhidi" }, { "affs": [ 15 ], "name": "Georg Schett" }, { "affs": [ 16, 17, 18 ], "name": "György Nagy" }, { "affs": [ 19, 20, 21 ], "name": "Zsuzsanna Helyes" } ], "bibtex": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/6jmpr6bmwscwn.bib", "cited_by": 0, "doi": "10.1186/s12974-026-03992-z", "fulltext_url": "https://europepmc.org/articles/PMC13721227", "id": "6jmpr6bmwscwn", "issns": [ "1742-2094" ], "landing_url": "https://europepmc.org/article/MED/42958501", "language": "eng", "licence": "CC-BY", "licence_label": "CC BY", "licence_source": "article", "licence_url": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "metadata_licence": null, "native_subjects": [ [ "heading", "Research" ], [ "openalex", "2745|Rheumatoid Arthritis Research and Therapies" ] ], "openalex": "W7172201833", "pdf_url": "https://europepmc.org/articles/PMC13721227?pdf=render", "pmcid": "PMC13721227", "pmid": "42958501", "published": "2026-08-03", "publisher": "BMC", "ris": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/6jmpr6bmwscwn.ris", "sources": [ { "first_seen": "2026-10-31T12:21:29Z", "native_id": "MED:42958501", "source": "europepmc", "url": "https://europepmc.org/article/MED/42958501" }, { "first_seen": "2026-11-03T12:21:57Z", "native_id": "PMC13721227", "source": "pmc", "url": "https://doi.org/10.1186/s12974-026-03992-z" } ], "subjects": [ { "field": "medicine", "origin": "openalex:2745|Rheumatoid Arthritis Research and Therapies", "subfield": "general" } ], "title": "Characteristic central nervous system fingerprints and related molecular signatures in difficult-to-treat rheumatoid arthritis.", "title_text": "Characteristic central nervous system fingerprints and related molecular signatures in difficult-to-treat rheumatoid arthritis.", "type": "peer-reviewed", "updated_at": "2026-11-03T12:21:57Z", "url": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/6jmpr6bmwscwn", "venue": "Journal of neuroinflammation", "versions": [] }