{
  "abstract": "Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) often exhibit rapid fluctuations in attention that are difficult to capture using standard behavioural assessments. We investigated whether trial-level pupil dynamics provide a physiological signal associated with task performance during a working-memory task and whether these responses differ with stimulant medication condition. Eye-tracking data were analysed from 50 children (28 ADHD, 22 Ctrl; mean age 10.6 years) performing a visuospatial Sternberg task. Trial-level pupil signals were characterised using inter-trial variance, within-trial variability (SD), and task-locked mean pupil responses. A hierarchical location–scale model estimated approximately 23% greater residual inter-trial variance in Off-ADHD than in Ctrl after adjustment for memory load, age, and IQ. The corresponding participant-level difference was statistically significant before correction but did not remain significant after FDR correction $$(q=.051)$$ . Within-trial variability was lower, rather than higher, in Off-ADHD than in Ctrl. Inter-trial variance was negatively associated with task accuracy in the Off-ADHD condition, although the strength of this association did not differ significantly from Ctrl. The On-ADHD condition was associated with an increased relative probe-window pupil response and reduced inter-trial variance within participants. However, these differences cannot be interpreted exclusively as cognitive medication effects because direct pharmacological and session-related contributions could not be fully excluded. Trajectory-based analyses further showed that the On-ADHD group-mean pupil trajectory was closer to Ctrl than the Off-ADHD trajectory under the DTW analysis. These findings suggest that trial-level pupil dynamics provide complementary physiological information about variability and task performance in ADHD, while remaining an indirect and non-specific measure of attention-related processing.",
  "abstract_shown": true,
  "affiliations": [
    "Human-Machine Interaction Lab, IIIT-Delhi"
  ],
  "article_type": null,
  "arxiv": null,
  "author_total": 3,
  "authors": [
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Saumya Yadav"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Aadya"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Jainendra Shukla"
    }
  ],
  "bibtex": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/7nwwaze5qgz5j.bib",
  "cited_by": 0,
  "doi": "10.1038/s41598-026-68871-2",
  "fulltext_url": "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-68871-2",
  "id": "7nwwaze5qgz5j",
  "issns": [
    "2045-2322"
  ],
  "landing_url": "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-68871-2",
  "language": "en",
  "licence": "CC-BY",
  "licence_label": "CC BY",
  "licence_source": "journal",
  "licence_url": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
  "metadata_licence": null,
  "native_subjects": [
    [
      "lcc",
      "Q"
    ],
    [
      "lcc",
      "R"
    ],
    [
      "openalex",
      "2738|Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder"
    ]
  ],
  "openalex": "W7211959381",
  "pdf_url": "https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-026-68871-2_reference.pdf",
  "pmcid": null,
  "pmid": null,
  "published": "2026-09-01",
  "publisher": "Nature Portfolio",
  "ris": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/7nwwaze5qgz5j.ris",
  "sources": [
    {
      "first_seen": "2026-10-30T13:45:54Z",
      "native_id": "9cf9f367ce30437683709779b9b3315a",
      "source": "doaj",
      "url": "https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-68871-2"
    }
  ],
  "subjects": [
    {
      "field": "medicine",
      "origin": "openalex:2738|Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder",
      "subfield": "psychiatry"
    }
  ],
  "title": "Trial-level pupil dynamics reflect attention-related variability and medication-associated modulation in ADHD",
  "title_text": "Trial-level pupil dynamics reflect attention-related variability and medication-associated modulation in ADHD",
  "type": "peer-reviewed",
  "updated_at": "2026-10-30T13:45:54Z",
  "url": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/7nwwaze5qgz5j",
  "venue": "Scientific Reports",
  "versions": []
}