{
  "abstract": "Background\n\nOrbital squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is a rare entity. It is a locally invasive malignancy which spreads to orbital structures, and if left untreated, can spread intracranially. The definitive treatment for SCC which is confined to the orbit is orbital exenteration. The aim of this study was to describe the radiological features of orbital SCC in patients who underwent orbital exenteration at a tertiary eye hospital in South Africa.Methods\n\nA retrospective cross-sectional study of 51 patients with histologically confirmed advanced orbital SCC, who underwent orbital exenteration between 01 January 2018 and 31 December 2023, analysing the radiological characteristics on computed tomography scans taken prior to exenteration.Results\n\nThe mean age was 46.7 years (s.d. 13.6), and 63% patients were male. The population was mostly African (88%), with a significant proportion (82%) testing positive for Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). Majority of tumours were confined to the orbit (57%) with even laterality. Globe involvement was extensive (90%), with lacrimal gland involvement in 41% of patients. Muscle involvement was also observed with the inferior rectus muscle most affected (58%), followed by the medial rectus muscle (48%). Patients with disease confined to the orbit were less likely to have lymph node involvement (p = 0.001) and distant metastatic spread (p = 0.001). In contrast, optic nerve spread groups showed more aggressive features, with significant differences observed in lymph node involvement (p = 0.001), bone erosion (p = 0.005) and overall sinus involvement (p = 0.001).Conclusion\n\nSquamous cell carcinoma requiring exenteration is varied in its presentation.Contribution\n\nMajority of patients were HIV positive. Optic nerve spread of the tumour had significantly more aggressive features.",
  "abstract_shown": true,
  "affiliations": [
    "Division of Ophthalmology, Department of Neurosciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.",
    "Department of Diagnostic Radiology, School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa."
  ],
  "article_type": "research article",
  "arxiv": null,
  "author_total": 4,
  "authors": [
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Nomcebo O Mkhatshwa",
      "orcid": "0009-0007-6119-5429"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Mokokomadi A Makgotloe",
      "orcid": "0000-0002-8193-3245"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        1
      ],
      "name": "Thandi Buthelezi",
      "orcid": "0000-0003-2016-6334"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Craig D Anderson",
      "orcid": "0000-0002-8918-367X"
    }
  ],
  "bibtex": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/802zzkyygc2xy.bib",
  "cited_by": 0,
  "doi": "10.4102/jcmsa.v4i1.404",
  "fulltext_url": "https://europepmc.org/articles/PMC13748515",
  "id": "802zzkyygc2xy",
  "issns": [
    "2960-110X"
  ],
  "landing_url": "https://europepmc.org/article/MED/43011169",
  "language": "eng",
  "licence": "CC-BY",
  "licence_label": "CC BY",
  "licence_source": "article",
  "licence_url": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
  "metadata_licence": null,
  "native_subjects": [
    [
      "heading",
      "Original Research"
    ],
    [
      "openalex",
      "2731|Ocular Oncology and Treatments"
    ]
  ],
  "openalex": "W7215080344",
  "pdf_url": "https://europepmc.org/articles/PMC13748515?pdf=render",
  "pmcid": "PMC13748515",
  "pmid": "43011169",
  "published": "2026-10-02",
  "publisher": "AOSIS",
  "ris": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/802zzkyygc2xy.ris",
  "sources": [
    {
      "first_seen": "2026-11-12T15:25:13Z",
      "native_id": "MED:43011169",
      "source": "europepmc",
      "url": "https://europepmc.org/article/MED/43011169"
    },
    {
      "first_seen": "2026-11-13T12:26:20Z",
      "native_id": "PMC13748515",
      "source": "pmc",
      "url": "https://doi.org/10.4102/jcmsa.v4i1.404"
    }
  ],
  "subjects": [
    {
      "field": "medicine",
      "origin": "openalex:2731|Ocular Oncology and Treatments",
      "subfield": "general"
    }
  ],
  "title": "The radiological characteristics of advanced orbital squamous cell carcinoma in patients who underwent orbital exenteration in a tertiary centre, South Africa.",
  "title_text": "The radiological characteristics of advanced orbital squamous cell carcinoma in patients who underwent orbital exenteration in a tertiary centre, South Africa.",
  "type": "peer-reviewed",
  "updated_at": "2026-11-14T03:20:07Z",
  "url": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/802zzkyygc2xy",
  "venue": "Journal of the colleges of medicine of South Africa",
  "versions": []
}