{
  "abstract": "Background: The increasing availability of generative artificial intelligence (AI) tools, such as ChatGPT, has changed the ways individuals access health information. While these technologies offer rapid, convenient access to information, concerns remain about their accuracy, safety, and potential influence on health-related decision-making. Understanding public knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions toward ChatGPT is essential to support its safe and responsible use in healthcare contexts.\n\nObjective: To assess the use of ChatGPT for health-related purposes and examine demographic, knowledge, attitude, perception, and risk–reward appraisal factors associated with its use among adults recruited from the Western Region of Saudi Arabia.\n\nMethods: In this cross-sectional study, 735 participants completed an online questionnaire. The instrument selected constructs from the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT) and was informed by the technology acceptance model (TAM), which captures demographics, health literacy, ChatGPT use, and multi-item Likert scales measuring knowledge, attitudes, perceptions, and risk–reward appraisal. We applied descriptive statistics, chi-square tests, t tests, ANOVA, and multivariable binary logistic regression.\n\nResults: Overall, 66.3% of the participants reported using ChatGPT for health-related purposes. The participants demonstrated good awareness of ChatGPT’s limitations, particularly the importance of consulting healthcare professionals for accurate diagnosis and safe medication use (mean = 4.58 ± 0.74). Attitudes toward ChatGPT were moderate, whereas perceptions of its usefulness and accessibility were generally positive. Compared with nonusers, ChatGPT users presented significantly higher attitudes, perceptions, and risk–reward appraisal scores (all p < 0.01), whereas knowledge scores were comparable between the two groups. In the multivariable logistic regression analysis, compared with participants aged ≥45 years, those aged 18–24 years (aOR = 5.37, 95% CI: 2.34–12.34, p < 0.001) and 25–44 years (aOR = 2.28, 95% CI: 1.32–3.96, p = 0.003) had higher odds of reported use. Participants with a bachelor’s degree (aOR = 1.82, 95% CI: 1.15–2.89, p = 0.011) or postgraduate education (aOR = 2.80, 95% CI: 1.34–5.85, p = 0.006), as well as students (aOR = 2.56, 95% CI: 1.29–5.09, p = 0.007), also had higher odds of use. Higher total perception scores were independently associated with reported ChatGPT use (aOR = 1.19, 95% CI: 1.12–1.26, p < 0.001).\n\nConclusion: ChatGPT is widely used for health-related purposes, particularly among younger and more educated individuals. Despite good awareness of its limitations, more favorable perceptions were independently associated with reported use, emphasizing the need for digital health literacy and guidance for safe AI use in healthcare.",
  "abstract_shown": true,
  "affiliations": [
    "Department of Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Taif University",
    "Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Taif University",
    "Stroke Research Unit, Taif University",
    "Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Al-Zaytoonah University of Jordan",
    "Pharmaceutical Practices Department, College of Pharmacy, Umm Al-Qura University",
    "Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, King Abdulaziz University"
  ],
  "article_type": "research article",
  "arxiv": null,
  "author_total": 15,
  "authors": [
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Mohammad S. Alzahrani"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        1,
        2
      ],
      "name": "Daniyah A. Almarghalani"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        3
      ],
      "name": "Alaa M. Hammad"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        4
      ],
      "name": "Adnan Alharbi"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        1
      ],
      "name": "Manar khaled Alhayfani"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Mohammed S. Alharthi"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        1
      ],
      "name": "Tahani Momenah"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        5
      ],
      "name": "Khulood A. Almehmadi"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        5
      ],
      "name": "Amal H. Alzahrani"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        1
      ],
      "name": "Daniyah Mansour Alazwari"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        1
      ],
      "name": "Ahdab Safar Althobaiti"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        1
      ],
      "name": "Mjd Awadh Alkhudaidi"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        1
      ],
      "name": "Ekram Saad Aljudayi"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        1
      ],
      "name": "Dimah Zuwayyid Alsufyani"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        1
      ],
      "name": "Hawazin Saleh Alsufyani"
    }
  ],
  "bibtex": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/8qg9yb0s08cq3.bib",
  "cited_by": 0,
  "doi": "10.3389/fpubh.2026.1936664",
  "fulltext_url": "https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13719601/?tool=EBI",
  "id": "8qg9yb0s08cq3",
  "issns": [
    "2296-2565"
  ],
  "landing_url": "https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2026.1936664/full",
  "language": "eng",
  "licence": "CC-BY-4.0",
  "licence_label": "CC BY 4.0",
  "licence_source": "article",
  "licence_url": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
  "metadata_licence": null,
  "native_subjects": [
    [
      "heading",
      "Original Research"
    ],
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      "openalex",
      "2718|Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education"
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  "openalex": "W7222644029",
  "pdf_url": "https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/public-health/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2026.1936664/pdf",
  "pmcid": "PMC13719601",
  "pmid": "42964189",
  "published": "2026-10-16",
  "publisher": "Frontiers Media SA",
  "ris": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/8qg9yb0s08cq3.ris",
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  "subjects": [
    {
      "field": "medicine",
      "origin": "openalex:2718|Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare and Education",
      "subfield": "epidemiology-public-health"
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  ],
  "title": "Public knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions of the use of ChatGPT for self-diagnosis, health information, and medication use: a cross-sectional study",
  "title_text": "Public knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions of the use of ChatGPT for self-diagnosis, health information, and medication use: a cross-sectional study",
  "type": "peer-reviewed",
  "updated_at": "2026-11-03T12:20:38Z",
  "url": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/8qg9yb0s08cq3",
  "venue": "Frontiers in Public Health",
  "versions": []
}