{
  "abstract": "This study evaluated the anticancer potential of Panax ginseng-derived exosomes (PGEs) against MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells, focusing on AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)-mediated apoptosis and tumor cell selectivity. PGE was isolated using size-exclusion chromatography and exhibited a mean particle size of 163.4 nm with a concentration of 1.2 × 10¹⁰ particles/mL. The exosomal identity was verified by elevated expression levels of CD9 (91.4%), CD63 (96.8%), and TET-8 (127.2%). Treatment with PGE caused a dose-dependent decline in the viability of MDA-MB-231 cells (87.2% at 0.38 × 10¹⁰ particles/mL), while normal human mammary epithelial cells (HMECs) maintained 90.1% viability even at 3.0 × 10¹⁰ particles/mL, indicating selective induction of apoptosis. In scratch assays, PGE suppressed MDA-MB-231 migration by up to 29.8% but enhanced HMEC proliferation and migration by 88.5%, demonstrating selective anti-invasive effects. Molecular analysis showed increased expression of AMPK-α, Bax, caspase-3, and caspase-9, coupled with downregulation of Bcl-2 and vascular endothelial growth factor, thereby validating mitochondrial apoptosis as the underlying mechanism. Flow cytometry further revealed a dose-dependent increase in early and late apoptosis in MDA-MB-231 cells (total apoptosis: 17.7%-32.9%), while HMEC displayed only minimal apoptotic response (< 7.6%). Immunofluorescence analysis also indicated chromatin condensation, ZO-1 disruption, and F-actin reorganization in MDA-MB-231, whereas HMEC preserved structural integrity with enhanced ZO-1 and F-actin intensity. LC-MS/MS profiling identified ginsenosides Rf, Rh1, and Rb1 as principal bioactive constituents of PGE, implicating them in AMPK-dependent apoptosis. Taken together, these results demonstrated that PGE selectively triggers apoptosis in breast cancer cells while maintaining normal cell viability, highlighting its potential as a natural exosome-based anticancer therapeutic with strong biocompatibility and translational potential.",
  "abstract_shown": true,
  "affiliations": [
    "Department of Food Technology & Nutrition Sunmoon University Asan-si Chungcheongnam-do Republic of Korea sunmoon.ac.kr."
  ],
  "article_type": "research article",
  "arxiv": null,
  "author_total": 6,
  "authors": [
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Min Ho Han",
      "orcid": "0009-0008-7786-1518"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Youn Seon Hwang",
      "orcid": "0000-0003-3230-4503"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Jong Hyun Oh",
      "orcid": "0009-0000-9321-4208"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Do Hyeon Jin",
      "orcid": "0009-0002-6412-0303"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Ju Hwan Lee",
      "orcid": "0009-0004-4159-5511"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Jin Woo Kim",
      "orcid": "0000-0003-2108-287X"
    }
  ],
  "bibtex": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/8t1yw0bvdbmar.bib",
  "cited_by": 0,
  "doi": "10.1155/ijbc/3346672",
  "fulltext_url": "https://europepmc.org/articles/PMC13689542",
  "id": "8t1yw0bvdbmar",
  "issns": [
    "2090-3170",
    "2090-3189"
  ],
  "landing_url": "https://europepmc.org/article/MED/42924182",
  "language": "eng",
  "licence": "CC-BY",
  "licence_label": "CC BY",
  "licence_source": "article",
  "licence_url": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
  "metadata_licence": null,
  "native_subjects": [
    [
      "openalex",
      "1312|Extracellular vesicles in disease"
    ]
  ],
  "openalex": "W7223184469",
  "pdf_url": "https://europepmc.org/articles/PMC13689542?pdf=render",
  "pmcid": "PMC13689542",
  "pmid": "42924182",
  "published": "2026-10-22",
  "publisher": null,
  "ris": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/8t1yw0bvdbmar.ris",
  "sources": [
    {
      "first_seen": "2026-10-30T12:20:33Z",
      "native_id": "MED:42924182",
      "source": "europepmc",
      "url": "https://europepmc.org/article/MED/42924182"
    }
  ],
  "subjects": [
    {
      "field": "biochemistry",
      "origin": "openalex:1312|Extracellular vesicles in disease",
      "subfield": "molecular-biology"
    }
  ],
  "title": "Elucidation of Selective Apoptosis of Breast Cancer Cells Induced by Panax ginseng-Derived Exosomes via Regulation of Bax/Bcl-2 Ratio and AMPK-α Signaling.",
  "title_text": "Elucidation of Selective Apoptosis of Breast Cancer Cells Induced by Panax ginseng-Derived Exosomes via Regulation of Bax/Bcl-2 Ratio and AMPK-α Signaling.",
  "type": "peer-reviewed",
  "updated_at": "2026-10-30T12:20:33Z",
  "url": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/8t1yw0bvdbmar",
  "venue": "International journal of breast cancer",
  "versions": []
}