{
  "abstract": "The increasing concern over the dermatological and neurological side effects of synthetic repellents aimed us to develop a stable and efficacious nanoliposomal hydrogel formulation containing Pelargonium graveolens essential oil (EO) and to evaluate its repellent efficacy against the primary urban malaria vector, Anopheles stephensi . Geranium EO was first complexed with β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) to enhance its stability and reduce volatility. This inclusion complex was then encapsulated within nanoliposomes using a microfluidic hydrodynamic focusing (MHF) technique with an optimized aqueous-to-organic FRR, producing unilamellar vesicles with a mean hydrodynamic diameter of 115.4 ± 3.7 nm and a low Polydispersity Index (PDI) of 0.21 ± 0.02, indicating a highly homogeneous vesicle population. The nanoliposomal suspension was subsequently incorporated into a carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) hydrogel matrix to form a topical formulation. The final nanoliposomal hydrogel demonstrated a high Encapsulation Efficiency (EE%) of 58.7 ± 2.4% for geranium EO and remained physically stable over 6 months under ICH Q1A(R2)-compliant conditions, with no signs of phase separation, syneresis, or pH drift. The repellent efficacy was evaluated against laboratory-reared, unfed female Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes using the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended arm-in-cage method. The optimized nanoliposomal hydrogel containing 2.5% geranium EO provided a complete protection time (CPT) of 285.5 ± 10.3 min against mosquito bites, which was significantly longer ( p < 0.01) than the CPT provided by an equivalent concentration of DEET under identical conditions. Both the placebo CMC hydrogel and blank nanoliposomal hydrogel showed negligible repellency (CPT < 5 min). These results demonstrate that the nanoliposome-hydrogel hybrid system effectively overcomes the inherent volatility and instability limitations of natural EOs, enabling a plant-based repellent to achieve superior and prolonged efficacy compared to the synthetic gold standard DEET. This formulation represents a highly promising for personal protection against malaria and other mosquito-borne diseases, with potential applications in integrated vector management programs, particularly in regions affected by insecticide-resistant Anopheles populations.",
  "abstract_shown": true,
  "affiliations": [],
  "article_type": null,
  "arxiv": null,
  "author_total": 7,
  "authors": [
    {
      "name": "Mohsen Kalantari",
      "orcid": "0000-0002-7448-3215"
    },
    {
      "name": "Kourosh Azizi"
    },
    {
      "name": "Raziyeh Shahheidari"
    },
    {
      "name": "Mohsen Fakhraei"
    },
    {
      "name": "Amir Hossein Roozitalab"
    },
    {
      "name": "Marziae Shahriari-Namadi"
    },
    {
      "name": "Azim Kaveh-Ahangar"
    }
  ],
  "bibtex": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/8ye6sbtfxk6dz.bib",
  "cited_by": 0,
  "doi": "10.1038/s41598-026-74204-0",
  "fulltext_url": null,
  "id": "8ye6sbtfxk6dz",
  "issns": [
    "2045-2322"
  ],
  "landing_url": "https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-026-74204-0",
  "language": null,
  "licence": "CC-BY-4.0",
  "licence_label": "CC BY 4.0",
  "licence_source": "article",
  "licence_url": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0",
  "metadata_licence": null,
  "native_subjects": [
    [
      "openalex",
      "1110|Insect Pest Control Strategies"
    ]
  ],
  "openalex": "W7214744287",
  "pdf_url": "https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-026-74204-0.pdf",
  "pmcid": null,
  "pmid": null,
  "published": "2026-09-30",
  "publisher": "Springer Science and Business Media LLC",
  "ris": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/8ye6sbtfxk6dz.ris",
  "sources": [
    {
      "first_seen": "2026-10-30T12:17:19Z",
      "native_id": "10.1038/s41598-026-74204-0",
      "source": "crossref",
      "url": "https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-026-74204-0"
    }
  ],
  "subjects": [
    {
      "field": "biology",
      "origin": "openalex:1110|Insect Pest Control Strategies",
      "subfield": "plant-biology"
    }
  ],
  "title": "Development and evaluation of a nanoliposomal hydrogel of Pelargonium graveolens essential oil as a repellent against Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes",
  "title_text": "Development and evaluation of a nanoliposomal hydrogel of Pelargonium graveolens essential oil as a repellent against Anopheles stephensi mosquitoes",
  "type": "peer-reviewed",
  "updated_at": "2026-10-30T12:17:19Z",
  "url": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/8ye6sbtfxk6dz",
  "venue": "Scientific Reports",
  "versions": []
}