{
  "abstract": "It is becoming more well acknowledged that type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a metabolic and inflammatory condition linked to microbiota that involves interrelated disruptions in intestinal integrity, immune control, and insulin signalling. Butyrate-producing bacteria, such as Faecalibacterium prausnitzii and Roseburia spp., are reduced in gut dysbiosis in type 2 diabetes, whereas opportunistic Gram-negative pathobionts that cause endotoxemia and mucosal inflammation proliferate. Increased intestinal permeability makes it easier for lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to translocate and activate the TLR4/MyD88/IKKβ/NF-κB pathway. This increases the production of TNF-α, IL-6, MCP-1, and IL-1β, which disrupt insulin signalling by serine phosphorylation of IRS-1 and subsequent inhibition of PI3K/Akt/GLUT4 function. Concurrently, JNK and NLRP3 inflammasome pathway activation increases oxidative stress, caspase-1 activation, and inflammatory β-cell damage. Simultaneously, decreased microbial-derived short-chain fatty acid synthesis impairs GPR41/GPR43- and HDAC-mediated signalling, which in turn affects AMPK activation, mitochondrial function, and enteroendocrine release of GLP-1 and PYY. FXR-FGF19 and TGR5-cAMP signalling are further disrupted by altered bile acid biotransformation, which encourages hepatic gluconeogenesis, fat buildup, and insulin resistance. Moreover, dysregulated branched-chain amino acid metabolism and overactivation of the mTOR/S6K1 pathway lead to chronic low-grade inflammation and metabolic rigidity. When taken as a whole, these interrelated microbiota-host signalling pathways are significant mechanistic contributors to the pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes and new treatment targets.",
  "abstract_shown": true,
  "affiliations": [
    "Department of Preventive Treatment of Disease, Affiliated Hospital of Liaoning University of Traditional Chinese Medicine",
    "Department of Cardiology I, The Affiliated Hospital of Liaoning University of Traditional Chinese Medicine"
  ],
  "article_type": "review",
  "arxiv": null,
  "author_total": 6,
  "authors": [
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Yuehua Chen",
      "orcid": "0009-0006-1343-7449"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Danru Jin"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Xue Han"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        1
      ],
      "name": "Xiaoting Liu",
      "orcid": "0000-0001-6313-4338"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Yisi Liu"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Li Wang",
      "orcid": "0000-0001-9639-1058"
    }
  ],
  "bibtex": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/950gm8mvr7z7r.bib",
  "cited_by": 12,
  "doi": "10.3389/fendo.2026.1856667",
  "fulltext_url": null,
  "id": "950gm8mvr7z7r",
  "issns": [
    "1664-2392"
  ],
  "landing_url": "https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2026.1856667",
  "language": "en",
  "licence": "CC-BY",
  "licence_label": "CC BY",
  "licence_source": "journal",
  "licence_url": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
  "metadata_licence": null,
  "native_subjects": [
    [
      "openalex",
      "1312|Gut microbiota and health"
    ]
  ],
  "openalex": "W7163149038",
  "pdf_url": "https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/endocrinology/articles/10.3389/fendo.2026.1856667/pdf",
  "pmcid": "PMC13311780",
  "pmid": "42375324",
  "published": "2026-06-02",
  "publisher": "Frontiers Media",
  "ris": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/950gm8mvr7z7r.ris",
  "sources": [
    {
      "first_seen": "2026-10-30T13:26:46Z",
      "native_id": "W7163149038",
      "source": "openalex",
      "url": "https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2026.1856667"
    }
  ],
  "subjects": [
    {
      "field": "biochemistry",
      "origin": "openalex:1312|Gut microbiota and health",
      "subfield": "molecular-biology"
    }
  ],
  "title": "Gut microbiota in type 2 diabetes mellitus: mechanistic links between dysbiosis, insulin resistance, and chronic low-grade inflammation",
  "title_text": "Gut microbiota in type 2 diabetes mellitus: mechanistic links between dysbiosis, insulin resistance, and chronic low-grade inflammation",
  "type": "peer-reviewed",
  "updated_at": "2026-11-08T13:20:43Z",
  "url": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/950gm8mvr7z7r",
  "venue": "Frontiers in Endocrinology",
  "versions": []
}