{
  "abstract": "In a rapidly changing climate, evidence-based decision-making benefits from up-to-date and timely information. We track twelve key sets of indicators of the state of the climate system, closely following Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Sixth Assessment report (AR6) methods, to produce our fourth annual publication. One of the indicators, the Earth's energy imbalance (EEI) provides a crucial integrative measure of the pace of climate change – this has more than doubled since the 1976–1995 period. A newly updated indicator of temperature extremes, the number of days experiencing marine heatwaves, has more than tripled between 1991 and 2025. For the 2016–2025 decade average, observed warming relative to 1850–1900 was 1.26 [1.13 to 1.36] °C, of which 1.24 [1.0 to 1.5] °C was human-induced. Human-induced warming reached 1.37 °C relative to 1850-1900 in the year 2025, increasing at a rate of 0.27 [0.2–0.4] °C per decade over 2016–2025. This high rate of warming, which matches the all-time high seen last year in the instrumental record, was caused by a combination of greenhouse gas emissions being at an all-time high of 54.6 ± 5.5 GtCO2e per year over the last decade (2015–2024), as well as reductions in the strength of aerosol cooling. Despite this, there is evidence that CO2 emission growth is slowing. The continuation of these annual updates could track decreases or increases in the rate of human influence and climatic changes presented here, reflecting the outcomes of societal choices during the critical 2020s decade. In total, we employ analysis from over 40 global datasets (https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.7883757 Smith et al., 2026a) These data are threatened by geopolitical and public funding decisions that are cutting support for key satellite and in-situ observing programs critical for the monitoring of the atmosphere, ocean, cryosphere and land surface, including long-term data preservation and provision that is key to understanding our changing climate for today and for future generations. Overall, the Global Climate Observing System (GCOS) framework, which supports much of our international capability, is under threat. Our ability to monitor effectively many of the indicators presented herein is not guaranteed without concerted international action to ensure the continuity of observation programs and coordination mechanisms, including the GCOS program, that enable their effective integration and use.",
  "abstract_shown": true,
  "affiliations": [
    "University of Leeds (Leeds, United Kingdom)",
    "Priestley Centre, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK",
    "Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom",
    "International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), Laxenburg, Austria",
    "International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), Austria",
    "Met Office Hadley Centre, Exeter, UK",
    "Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford, UK",
    "Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (PIK), Potsdam, Germany",
    "Priestley Centre for Climate Futures, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom",
    "Mercator Research Institute on Global Commons and Climate Change (MCC), Berlin, Germany",
    "Centre for Environmental Policy, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom",
    "Centre for Environmental Policy, Imperial College London, UK",
    "Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique, Institut Pierre‑Simon Laplace, Paris, France",
    "German Climate Computing Center, Hamburg, Germany (DKRZ)",
    "Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Science, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland",
    "Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Science, Department of Environmental Systems Science, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland",
    "Berkeley Earth, Berkeley, CA, United States of America",
    "Stripe Inc., South San Francisco, CA, United States of America",
    "Université de Toulouse, Météo France, CNRS, France",
    "Center for Climate Physics, Institute for Basic Science, Busan, Republic of Korea",
    "Research Center for Climate Sciences, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea",
    "Met Office Hadley Centre, Exeter, United Kingdom",
    "School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom",
    "Environment and Climate Change Canada, Canada",
    "Mercator Ocean International, Toulouse, France",
    "School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, UK",
    "ICARUS Climate Research Centre, Maynooth University, Maynooth, Ireland",
    "Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research (NIOZ), Yerseke, the Netherlands",
    "Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l’Environnement (LSCE), Université Paris‑Saclay, Gif‑sur‑Yvette, France",
    "Mercator Ocean international, Toulouse, France",
    "Bureau of Meteorology, Melbourne, Australia",
    "CICERO Center for International Climate Research, Oslo, Norway",
    "Faculty of Environment, Science and Economy, University of Exeter, UK",
    "Concordia University, Montreal, QC, Canada",
    "NOAA's National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI), Silver Spring, MD, USA",
    "Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Pune, India",
    "ECWMF, Bonn, Germany",
    "CNRM, Météo‑France, CNRS, Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France",
    "Grantham Institute for Climate Change and Environment, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom",
    "Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China"
  ],
  "article_type": null,
  "arxiv": null,
  "author_total": 73,
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      "name": "Piers M. de F. Forster",
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      "name": "Tristram Walsh",
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      "name": "Chris Smith",
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      "name": "William F. Lamb",
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      "name": "Robin Lamboll",
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      "name": "Christophe Cassou",
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      "name": "Mathias Hauser",
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      "name": "Debbie Rosen",
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      "name": "Xuebin Zhang",
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      "name": "Myles R. Allen",
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      "name": "Robbie M. Andrew",
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      "name": "Chris Atkinson",
      "orcid": "0000-0002-8440-9860"
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      "name": "Richard Betts",
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      "name": "Antonio Bombelli"
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      "name": "Samantha Burgess",
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      "name": "Lijing Cheng",
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      "name": "Helen E. Claxton"
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      "name": "Pierre Friedlingstein",
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      "name": "Thomas Lukas Frölicher",
      "orcid": "0000-0003-2348-7854"
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      "name": "Catia M. Domingues",
      "orcid": "0000-0001-5100-4595"
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      "name": "Thomas Gasser",
      "orcid": "0000-0003-4882-2647"
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      "name": "Catherine H. Gregory",
      "orcid": "0000-0002-8867-8144"
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      "name": "Rachel Hoesly",
      "orcid": "0000-0003-0965-2729"
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      "name": "Daniel Huppmann",
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      "name": "Masayoshi Ishii",
      "orcid": "0000-0002-2564-5548"
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      "name": "Christopher Kadow",
      "orcid": "0000-0001-6537-3690"
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      "name": "Alexia Karwat",
      "orcid": "0009-0002-9192-039X"
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      "name": "John Kennedy",
      "orcid": "0000-0002-6841-7289"
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      "name": "Rachel Killick",
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      "name": "Mahesh Kovilakam",
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      "name": "Paul B. Krummel",
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      "name": "Xin Lan",
      "orcid": "0000-0001-6327-6950"
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      "name": "Jean-François Lamarque",
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      "name": "Aurélien Liné",
      "orcid": "0000-0001-6095-9633"
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      "name": "Belén Martín-Míguez"
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      "name": "Didier P. Monselesan",
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      "name": "Abhishek Savita"
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  "bibtex": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/995emp86yhxe8.bib",
  "cited_by": 43,
  "doi": "10.5194/essd-18-3889-2026",
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  "id": "995emp86yhxe8",
  "issns": [
    "1866-3508",
    "1866-3516"
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  "landing_url": "https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-18-3889-2026",
  "language": "en",
  "licence": "CC-BY",
  "licence_label": "CC BY",
  "licence_source": "journal",
  "licence_url": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
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  "openalex": "W4396720861",
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  "published": "2026-06-05",
  "publisher": "Copernicus Publications",
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  "subjects": [
    {
      "field": "earth",
      "origin": "hal:0.sde",
      "subfield": "environmental-science"
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  ],
  "title": "Indicators of Global Climate Change 2025: annual update of key indicators of the state of the climate system and human influence",
  "title_text": "Indicators of Global Climate Change 2025: annual update of key indicators of the state of the climate system and human influence",
  "type": "peer-reviewed",
  "updated_at": "2026-11-05T13:21:10Z",
  "url": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/995emp86yhxe8",
  "venue": "Earth system science data",
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