{
  "abstract": "Background: Conventional treatments for major depressive disorder (MDD) fail to benefit one-third of patients, underscoring the need for therapies with novel mechanisms of action. Bilateral functional electrical stimulation (FES) of the facial muscles uses electrical currents to activate the muscles involved in facial expression and may offer a novel “mind–body” intervention for MDD. Based on preliminary work demonstrating the feasibility of FES for MDD, this proposed study will assess the efficacy, safety, and tolerability of FES in MDD. Methods: This single-site, double-blind, randomized, sham-controlled pilot trial will enroll 60 participants to evaluate the therapeutic effects of 20 sessions of bilateral facial FES over four weeks. The study will assess the impact of FES on depressive symptoms, associated anxiety, quality of life, and sleep. Participant dropout and protocol adherence will be monitored to assess tolerability, while adverse events will be monitored to assess safety throughout the trial. Eligible participants will complete 20 on-site intervention visits and 6 online visits, including a screening visit, a baseline visit, and four post-stimulation follow-up visits. Discussion: The findings from this trial will guide the development of a multisite, large-scale randomized controlled trial and inform further refinement of FES treatment parameters for this population. Trial registration: This trial was registered at the National Library of Medicine, National Center for Biotechnology Information (ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT07629050. Date registered: 2026-06-08).",
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  "affiliations": [
    "Interventional Psychiatry Program, St. Michael’s Hospital, Unity Health Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada",
    "Institute of Medical Science, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada",
    "The KITE Research Institute, Toronto Rehabilitation Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada",
    "CRANIA, University Health Network and University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada",
    "Institute of Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada",
    "Rehabilitation Sciences Institute, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada",
    "Edward S. Rogers Sr. Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada",
    "Lyndhurst Centre, KITE Research Institute–University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada",
    "Division of Biostatistics, Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada",
    "Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada",
    "Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Ontario, Canada",
    "Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada",
    "Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, St. Michael’s Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada"
  ],
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      "name": "Fatemeh Gholamali Nezhad"
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      "name": "Haochen Yu"
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      "name": "Ilya Demchenko"
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      "name": "Stephanie N. Iwasa"
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      "name": "Stephanie DiNunzio"
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      "name": "Rayna Ghosh"
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      "name": "José Zariffa"
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      "name": "Kei Masani"
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      "name": "Wendy Lou"
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      "name": "Benoit H. Mulsant"
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    {
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      "name": "Hani E. Naguib"
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    {
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      ],
      "name": "Milos R. Popovic"
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    {
      "affs": [
        12
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      "name": "Venkat Bhat"
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  "pmcid": null,
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  "published": "2026-09-10",
  "publisher": "Public Library of Science",
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  "title": "Functional electrical stimulation for major depressive disorder: Protocol for a pilot randomized controlled trial",
  "title_text": "Functional electrical stimulation for major depressive disorder: Protocol for a pilot randomized controlled trial",
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