{
  "abstract": "Self–other distinction (SOD) refers to the ability to distinguish one’s own mental states from those of others, a prerequisite for empathy and adaptive social functioning. SOD difficulties may contribute to several forms of psychopathology; however, a validated instrument capturing SOD difficulties across domains and processes is lacking. The present study reports on the development and preliminary validation of the SOD Difficulties Questionnaire (SODDQ) in a population-representative US sample recruited via Prolific (N = 602). Starting from 91 items, a systematic selection led to a measure consisting of 42 items covering six facets of SOD difficulties: egocentric bias, altercentric bias, and self–other confusion, each in cognitive and affective domains. Confirmatory factor analyses supported the six-factor structure with excellent fit (CFIs > .95, RMSEAs < .05), while hierarchical and bifactor models supported both a general SOD difficulties dimension and domain-specific and process-specific components. Internal consistency was satisfactory to high across subscales (McDonald’s ω = .72–.87). Convergent validity was supported through associations with the Self–Other Differentiation Scale (SODS) and the Questionnaire of Cognitive and Affective Empathy. Criterion validity was demonstrated through strong associations with personality dysfunctioning (LPFS-BF 2.0) and social functioning (NIH Toolbox), with the SODDQ outperforming the SODS in predictive power. Higher stress levels were associated with greater SOD difficulties, women reported higher affective altercentric bias whereas men reported higher affective egocentric bias, and older age was associated with lower SOD difficulties. This study therefore provides preliminary support for the reliability and validity of the SODDQ to assess SOD difficulties in a US sample.",
  "abstract_shown": true,
  "affiliations": [],
  "article_type": null,
  "arxiv": null,
  "author_total": 9,
  "authors": [
    {
      "name": "Henryk Bukowski"
    },
    {
      "name": "Ekaterina Pronizius"
    },
    {
      "name": "Alix Bigot"
    },
    {
      "name": "Annabel Bogaerts"
    },
    {
      "name": "Martin Horký"
    },
    {
      "name": "Dominik Golab"
    },
    {
      "name": "Claus Lamm"
    },
    {
      "name": "Patrick Luyten"
    },
    {
      "name": "Celine De Meulemeester"
    }
  ],
  "bibtex": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/a3e5bfvgvx684.bib",
  "cited_by": 0,
  "doi": "10.31234/osf.io/xjgsc_v1",
  "fulltext_url": null,
  "id": "a3e5bfvgvx684",
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  "landing_url": "https://osf.io/preprints/psyarxiv/xjgsc_v1/",
  "language": null,
  "licence": "CC-BY-4.0",
  "licence_label": "CC BY 4.0",
  "licence_source": "article",
  "licence_url": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
  "metadata_licence": null,
  "native_subjects": [
    [
      "bepress",
      "Affect and Emotion Regulation"
    ],
    [
      "bepress",
      "Assessment"
    ],
    [
      "bepress",
      "Biases, Framing, and Heuristics"
    ],
    [
      "bepress",
      "Clinical Psychology"
    ],
    [
      "bepress",
      "Cognitive Psychology"
    ],
    [
      "bepress",
      "Emotion"
    ],
    [
      "bepress",
      "Health Psychology"
    ],
    [
      "bepress",
      "Interpersonal Relationships"
    ],
    [
      "bepress",
      "Mental Disorders"
    ],
    [
      "bepress",
      "Psychometrics"
    ],
    [
      "bepress",
      "Quantitative Methods"
    ],
    [
      "bepress",
      "Social Cognition"
    ],
    [
      "bepress",
      "Social and Behavioral Sciences"
    ],
    [
      "bepress",
      "Social and Personality Psychology"
    ],
    [
      "bepress",
      "Stress"
    ],
    [
      "openalex",
      "3203|Personality Traits and Psychology"
    ]
  ],
  "openalex": "W7212260204",
  "pdf_url": "https://osf.io/xjgsc/download",
  "pmcid": null,
  "pmid": null,
  "published": "2026-09-08",
  "publisher": null,
  "ris": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/a3e5bfvgvx684.ris",
  "sources": [
    {
      "first_seen": "2026-10-30T12:25:48Z",
      "native_id": "xjgsc",
      "source": "osf",
      "url": "https://osf.io/preprints/psyarxiv/xjgsc_v1/"
    }
  ],
  "subjects": [
    {
      "field": "medicine",
      "origin": "bepress:Clinical Psychology",
      "subfield": "psychiatry"
    }
  ],
  "title": "Introducing the Self-Other Distinction Difficulties Questionnaire (SODDQ): Scale Development and Validation in a US Sample",
  "title_text": "Introducing the Self-Other Distinction Difficulties Questionnaire (SODDQ): Scale Development and Validation in a US Sample",
  "type": "preprint",
  "updated_at": "2026-10-30T12:25:48Z",
  "url": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/a3e5bfvgvx684",
  "venue": "PsyArXiv",
  "versions": []
}