{
  "abstract": "Glioblastoma multiforme has a median survival of 12–15 months despite multimodal treatment, due to blood-brain barrier impermeability limiting CNS drug bioavailability. Liposomal nanoformulations circumvent this barrier while offering tunable surface chemistry and amphiphilic drug-loading capacity. Here, we report encapsulation of kaempferol, a dietary flavonoid, within phosphatidylcholine-cholesterol liposomes (Lip-KPF) and evaluate cytotoxic activity against LN-229 glioblastoma cells relative to free kaempferol (KPF) and puromycin aminonucleoside (Puro-A). LCMS confirmed 56% encapsulation efficiency; dynamic light scattering yielded a zeta potential of −15.32 ± 0.83 mV, mean particle size of 200.44 ± 12.22 nm, and PDI of 0.29 ± 0.06, with 31P NMR confirming a multilamellar structure. Lip-KPF potency against LN-229 cells increased progressively across 24–72 h, peaking at 72 h (19.880 μM) with significantly lower IC50 values than free KPF (p < 0.001), while maintaining lower astrocyte toxicity. Selectivity indices for Lip-KPF exceeded 1 at every time point, widening over time. Cell death was confirmed by TUNEL assay and phase-contrast microscopy. RT-qPCR revealed concurrent BAX and TP53 upregulation alongside CASP3/CASP7 suppression in both groups, with no significant difference between KPF and Lip-KPF; ELISA corroborated CASP3 suppression, consistent with a possible caspase-independent death mechanism. In a preliminary antioxidant rescue assay, pretreatment did not significantly alter KPF-induced cytotoxicity but significantly increased it in Lip-KPF-treated cells, indicating a cytotoxic mechanism independent of the ROS pathway contributing to free KPF’s activity. These findings support Lip-KPF as a candidate for continued preclinical investigation in LN-229 glioblastoma cells.",
  "abstract_shown": true,
  "affiliations": [
    "Florida Gulf Coast University , , , ,"
  ],
  "article_type": null,
  "arxiv": null,
  "author_total": 6,
  "authors": [
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Chukwumaobim D. O. Nwokwu",
      "orcid": "0000-0001-9146-5249"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Malik H. Walker"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Miranda De Andrade"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Samantha J. Louis"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Austin J. Fearday"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Alejandro Bugarin",
      "orcid": "0000-0001-8504-355X"
    }
  ],
  "bibtex": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/a57p294kppe4h.bib",
  "cited_by": 0,
  "doi": "10.1021/acsomega.6c06597",
  "fulltext_url": null,
  "id": "a57p294kppe4h",
  "issns": [
    "2470-1343"
  ],
  "landing_url": "https://pubs.acs.org/acsodf/article/doi/10.1021/acsomega.6c06597/5466273/Development-and-In-Vitro-Evaluation-of-Kaempferol",
  "language": null,
  "licence": "CC-BY-4.0",
  "licence_label": "CC BY 4.0",
  "licence_source": "article",
  "licence_url": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
  "metadata_licence": null,
  "native_subjects": [],
  "openalex": null,
  "pdf_url": "https://pubs.acs.org/acsodf/article-pdf/doi/10.1021/acsomega.6c06597/69114625/acsomega.6c06597.pdf",
  "pmcid": null,
  "pmid": null,
  "published": "2026-11-08",
  "publisher": "American Chemical Society (ACS)",
  "ris": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/a57p294kppe4h.ris",
  "sources": [
    {
      "first_seen": "2026-11-09T00:20:50Z",
      "native_id": "10.1021/acsomega.6c06597",
      "source": "crossref",
      "url": "https://pubs.acs.org/acsodf/article/doi/10.1021/acsomega.6c06597/5466273/Development-and-In-Vitro-Evaluation-of-Kaempferol"
    }
  ],
  "subjects": [
    {
      "field": "chemistry",
      "origin": "issn:2470-1343",
      "subfield": "general"
    }
  ],
  "title": "Development and In Vitro Evaluation of Kaempferol-Loaded Liposomes in LN-229 Glioblastoma Cells: Potency, Selectivity, and Modulation of ROS-Dependent Cytotoxicity",
  "title_text": "Development and In Vitro Evaluation of Kaempferol-Loaded Liposomes in LN-229 Glioblastoma Cells: Potency, Selectivity, and Modulation of ROS-Dependent Cytotoxicity",
  "type": "peer-reviewed",
  "updated_at": "2026-11-09T12:22:10Z",
  "url": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/a57p294kppe4h",
  "venue": "ACS Omega",
  "versions": []
}