{
  "abstract": "RNA droplets assembled from cotranscriptionally folded nanostructures have recently emerged as a promising platform for constructing protocells and minimal synthetic cell models. A custom-designed DNA template encodes an RNA nanostar that self-assembles into droplets by kissing-loop interactions. Here we show that such RNA droplets encapsulate their DNA template, creating a genotype-phenotype link. We find that low mutation rates in the DNA template increase the phenotypical and functional complexity of the RNA droplets. Surprisingly, mutagenesis leads to the formation of long-lived vacuoles. With theory and next-generation sequencing, we explain this emergent behavior. We identify mutant nanostars that facilitate the formation of vacuoles through altered interactions between nanostars. Strikingly, vacuolated droplets exhibit micrometer-scale movement driven by internal vacuole dynamics - an emergent function resulting from mutagenesis. Beyond motility, we show that the vacuoles can be used as subcompartments to store cargo in the RNA droplets. Our findings establish RNA droplets as self-contained, evolvable systems, opening new avenues for the bottom-up evolution of synthetic cells and origins-of-life research.",
  "abstract_shown": true,
  "affiliations": [
    "Center for Molecular Biology of Heidelberg University (ZMBH), Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany.",
    "Max Planck School Matter to Life, Heidelberg, Germany.",
    "Faculty of Mathematics, Natural Science, and Materials Engineering, Institute of Physics, University of Augsburg, Augsburg, Germany.",
    "German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ) Heidelberg, CCU Neuroimmunology and Brain Tumor Immunology, Heidelberg, Germany.",
    "German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), DKFZ, Core Center Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.",
    "Department of Neurology, Medical Faculty Mannheim, MCTN, University of Heidelberg, Mannheim, Germany.",
    "Faculty of Bioscience, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany.",
    "Helmholtz Institute for Translational Oncology Mainz, Mainz, Germany.",
    "DKFZ-Hector Cancer Institute at the Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany.",
    "Cluster of Excellence SynthImmune, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany."
  ],
  "article_type": "research article",
  "arxiv": null,
  "author_total": 11,
  "authors": [
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "William Verstraeten",
      "orcid": "0009-0005-4458-9579"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Mai P Tran"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0,
        1
      ],
      "name": "Alena Taskina"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        2
      ],
      "name": "Pranay Jaiswal"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        2
      ],
      "name": "Ivar S Haugerud",
      "orcid": "0000-0001-9931-3741"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0
      ],
      "name": "Claudia Helbig"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        3,
        4,
        5,
        6
      ],
      "name": "Moritz Hamberger"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        3,
        4,
        5
      ],
      "name": "Edward W Green"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        3,
        4,
        5,
        7,
        8,
        9
      ],
      "name": "Michael Platten",
      "orcid": "0000-0002-4746-887X"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        2
      ],
      "name": "Christoph A Weber",
      "orcid": "0000-0001-6279-0405"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0,
        1,
        9
      ],
      "name": "Kerstin Göpfrich",
      "orcid": "0000-0003-2115-3551"
    }
  ],
  "bibtex": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/agssgv497kmvg.bib",
  "cited_by": 4,
  "doi": "10.1038/s44286-026-00454-4",
  "fulltext_url": "https://europepmc.org/articles/PMC13680278",
  "id": "agssgv497kmvg",
  "issns": [
    "2948-1198"
  ],
  "landing_url": "https://europepmc.org/article/MED/42903144",
  "language": "eng",
  "licence": "CC-BY",
  "licence_label": "CC BY",
  "licence_source": "article",
  "licence_url": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
  "metadata_licence": null,
  "native_subjects": [
    [
      "openalex",
      "3103|Origins and Evolution of Life"
    ]
  ],
  "openalex": "W4416397959",
  "pdf_url": "https://europepmc.org/articles/PMC13680278?pdf=render",
  "pmcid": "PMC13680278",
  "pmid": "42903144",
  "published": "2026-10-07",
  "publisher": null,
  "ris": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/agssgv497kmvg.ris",
  "sources": [
    {
      "first_seen": "2026-10-30T12:19:53Z",
      "native_id": "MED:42903144",
      "source": "europepmc",
      "url": "https://europepmc.org/article/MED/42903144"
    }
  ],
  "subjects": [
    {
      "field": "astronomy",
      "origin": "openalex:3103|Origins and Evolution of Life",
      "subfield": "general"
    }
  ],
  "title": "Genetic encoding and mutagenesis of RNA droplet phenotypes.",
  "title_text": "Genetic encoding and mutagenesis of RNA droplet phenotypes.",
  "type": "peer-reviewed",
  "updated_at": "2026-10-30T12:19:53Z",
  "url": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/agssgv497kmvg",
  "venue": "Nature chemical engineering",
  "versions": []
}