{
  "abstract": "Nitric oxide (NO) emitted from immune cells such as macrophages plays an important role in combating bacterial pathogens. Yet studying ephemeral NO-mediated interactions in real time, quantitatively, and at the single-cell level has been technically challenging. Here we present an “artificial macrophage”: a live-cell imaging platform that overcomes these challenges by leveraging electrochemistry to generate micropatterned NO gradients at infection-relevant concentrations. We achieve this capability using a biocompatible electrocatalyst that selectively transforms ammonia into NO in biological media. Using Pseudomonas aeruginosa as a model NO-responsive pathogen, we show that the NO microenvironment, influenced by both extracellular NO concentrations and NO gradients experienced by cells, underpins NO’s bactericidal efficacy for individual surface-associated cells. Our results highlight that considering NO’s reaction-diffusion, rather than just its local concentration, is key to understanding how the extracellular microenvironment affects single-cell bacterial viability. Spatiotemporal control of NO microenvironments using our live-cell imaging platform will advance studies of diverse cell types that regularly encounter NO.",
  "abstract_shown": true,
  "affiliations": [
    "Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry",
    "University of California",
    "Division of Biology and Biological Engineering",
    "California Institute of Technology",
    "California NanoSystems Institute (CNSI), University of California",
    "Division of Geological and Planetary Sciences"
  ],
  "article_type": null,
  "arxiv": null,
  "author_total": 9,
  "authors": [
    {
      "affs": [
        0,
        1
      ],
      "name": "Haiyuan Zou"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0,
        1
      ],
      "name": "Ziqi Ding"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        2,
        3
      ],
      "name": "Sarah L. Weisflog"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        2,
        3
      ],
      "name": "Georgia R. Squyres"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0,
        1
      ],
      "name": "Yifan Gao"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0,
        1
      ],
      "name": "Yisi Chen"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        4
      ],
      "name": "Haley L. Marks"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        2,
        3,
        5
      ],
      "name": "Dianne K. Newman"
    },
    {
      "affs": [
        0,
        1,
        4
      ],
      "name": "Chong Liu",
      "orcid": "0000-0001-5546-3852"
    }
  ],
  "bibtex": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/b1t57bnd61109.bib",
  "cited_by": 0,
  "doi": "10.26434/chemrxiv.15010647/v1",
  "fulltext_url": null,
  "id": "b1t57bnd61109",
  "issns": [],
  "landing_url": "https://chemrxiv.org/doi/full/10.26434/chemrxiv.15010647/v1",
  "language": null,
  "licence": "CC-BY",
  "licence_label": "CC BY",
  "licence_source": "journal",
  "licence_url": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
  "metadata_licence": null,
  "native_subjects": [
    [
      "openalex",
      "1312|Redox biology and oxidative stress"
    ]
  ],
  "openalex": "W7222930585",
  "pdf_url": "https://chemrxiv.org/doi/pdf/10.26434/chemrxiv.15010647/v1",
  "pmcid": null,
  "pmid": null,
  "published": "2026-10-19",
  "publisher": "American Chemical Society (ACS)",
  "ris": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/b1t57bnd61109.ris",
  "sources": [
    {
      "first_seen": "2026-10-30T12:17:24Z",
      "native_id": "10.26434/chemrxiv.15010647",
      "source": "chemrxiv",
      "url": "https://chemrxiv.org/doi/full/10.26434/chemrxiv.15010647/v1"
    }
  ],
  "subjects": [
    {
      "field": "biochemistry",
      "origin": "openalex:1312|Redox biology and oxidative stress",
      "subfield": "molecular-biology"
    }
  ],
  "title": "An artificial macrophage reveals the impact of nitric oxide microenvironments on bacterial viability",
  "title_text": "An artificial macrophage reveals the impact of nitric oxide microenvironments on bacterial viability",
  "type": "preprint",
  "updated_at": "2026-10-30T12:17:24Z",
  "url": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/b1t57bnd61109",
  "venue": "ChemRxiv",
  "versions": []
}