{
  "abstract": "Background: Nigeria bears the highest malaria burden globally, with vector control strategies relying heavily on the use of Long-lasting Insecticidal nets (LLINs). However, the widespread emergence of insecticide resistance threatens the effectiveness of this intervention in the country. This study provides a comprehensive 5-year overview (2020–2024) of the resistance status and resistance mechanisms of Anopheles mosquitoes in Nigeria.\n\nMethods: Immature stages of mosquitoes were collected from 72 local government areas (spanning 12 States), raised to adults and exposed to standard concentrations of permethrin, deltamethrin, alphacypermethrin, and pirimiphos-methyl insecticide papers according to WHO criteria for 5 years (2020–2024). Furthermore, molecular test and bioassays were used to determine the involvement of kdr-L995F mutation and oxidase-based metabolic enzymes in areas where resistance was confirmed. All mosquitoes tested were identified morphologically. Spatial and temporal patterns of insecticide susceptibility results were visualised using geospatial mapping tools in R (sf, tidyr, ggplot2).\n\nResults: Members of the Anopheles gambiae complex accounted for 95% of all mosquitoes tested across the 72 LGAs, with Anopheles coluzzii comprising 79.8% of collections. Other species encountered included An. funestus, An. pretoriensis, An. malculipalpis, and An. nilli. Widespread and persistent resistance to pyrethroid insecticides was detected throughout the study period. Mortality to permethrin remained consistently low (0–75%), indicating high levels of resistance across most locations. Resistance to deltamethrin and alphacypermethrin was also widespread but generally less pronounced, with mortality ranging from 10 to 90% and 20–80%, respectively. Temporal trends revealed localized reductions in resistance intensity between 2022 and 2023, coinciding with periods of large-scale LLINs distribution in several States. Synergist bioassays demonstrated substantial involvement of oxidase-based metabolic mechanisms, suggesting that multiple resistance mechanisms are operating across Nigeria. The frequency of the kdr-w mutation ranged from 0.0 to 0.7 and generally increased between 2021 and 2023 before declining slightly in 2024. While kdr-w frequency was significantly associated with reduced mortality to deltamethrin (τ = − 0.179, p < 0.001), no corresponding association was observed for permethrin (τ ≈ 0, p = 0.998), and the mutation was not a significant predictor of pyrethroid mortality overall after accounting for insecticide type and spatial clustering (β = 10.50, p = 0.078). These findings indicate that the contribution of kdr-mediated resistance varies among pyrethroid compounds.\n\nConclusion: The predominance of Anopheles coluzzii in tested collections, coupled with pervasive pyrethroid resistance and widespread oxidase-based metabolic resistant mechanisms, poses significant challenges to malaria vector control efforts in Nigeria. These findings underscore the urgent need to prioritize efforts at managing metabolic resistance mechanisms through integrated vector control and further strengthen IRS with the use of non-pyrethroid insecticides. Enhanced surveillance, including molecular diagnostics and monitoring of agricultural pesticide use, will be critical for sustaining malaria control gains and informing adaptive, evidence-driven intervention planning in Nigeria.\n\nSupplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-026-06083-9.",
  "abstract_shown": true,
  "affiliations": [
    "Nigerian Institute of Medical Research, Yaba, Lagos, Nigeria",
    "National Malaria Elimination Program, Federal Ministry of Health, Abuja, Nigeria",
    "Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria",
    "Taraba State University, Jalingo, Nigeria",
    "State College of Health Science, Takum, Adamawa Nigeria",
    "Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Federal University, Dutse, Jigawa Nigeria",
    "Umar Suleiman College of Education, Gashu’a, Yobe State Nigeria",
    "Yobe State University, Damaturu, Nigeria",
    "University of Science and Technology, Kano, Kano State Nigeria",
    "Yusuf Maitama Sule University, Kano, Kano State Nigeria",
    "Department of Biology, Umaru Musa Yar’adua University, Batagarawa, Katsina State Nigeria",
    "Federal University Dutsinma, Dutsinma, Katsina Nigeria",
    "Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Gombe State University, Gombe, Nigeria",
    "Department of Animal & Environmental Biology, Delta State University, Abraka, Delta State Nigeria",
    "Department of Biological Sciences, Taraba State University, Jalingo, Nigeria",
    "Department of Zoology, Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences, Osun State University, Osogbo, Nigeria",
    "ABT Associates, Keffi, Nasarawa State Nigeria",
    "Department of Zoology, Kwara State University, Malete, Kwara Nigeria",
    "Department of Zoology, Madibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola, Adamawa State Nigeria",
    "Community Vision, Abuja, Nigeria",
    "University of Abuja, Abuja, FCT Nigeria",
    "Department of Zoology, Adamawa State University, Mubi, Adamawa State Nigeria",
    "Department of Zoology, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Kwara State Nigeria",
    "Department of Animal Biology, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria",
    "Centre for Infectious Diseases Research, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria",
    "World Health Organization, Abuja, Lagos State Nigeria",
    "Global Fund, Abuja, Federal Capital Territory Nigeria",
    "Faculty of Health Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria"
  ],
  "article_type": "research article",
  "arxiv": null,
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  "bibtex": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/d19t997t6rd6r.bib",
  "cited_by": 0,
  "doi": "10.1186/s12936-026-06083-9",
  "fulltext_url": "https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC13741510/",
  "id": "d19t997t6rd6r",
  "issns": [
    "1475-2875"
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  "landing_url": "https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-026-06083-9",
  "language": "en",
  "licence": "CC-BY-4.0",
  "licence_label": "CC BY 4.0",
  "licence_source": "article",
  "licence_url": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/",
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  "native_subjects": [
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      "heading",
      "Research"
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      "2739|Malaria Research and Control"
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  "pmcid": "PMC13741510",
  "pmid": "42995557",
  "published": "2026-08-10",
  "publisher": "BMC",
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      "origin": "openalex:2739|Malaria Research and Control",
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  "title": "Insecticide resistance profile of the Anopheles gambiae s.l. mosquitoes in Nigeria: a 5-year malaria vector surveillance report",
  "title_text": "Insecticide resistance profile of the Anopheles gambiae s.l. mosquitoes in Nigeria: a 5-year malaria vector surveillance report",
  "type": "peer-reviewed",
  "updated_at": "2026-11-10T12:22:33Z",
  "url": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/d19t997t6rd6r",
  "venue": "Malaria Journal",
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