{ "abstract": "While algorithmic fairness research in healthcare has predominantly focused on disparities in model performance, less attention has been given to the underlying data structures that may drive such disparities. High-level fairness metrics often obscure the deeper feature-level dynamics necessary for a critical and context-aware assessment of fairness. To address this gap, we propose and apply a diagnostic framework termed Feature-Level Bias Identification And Sensemaking (FL-BIAS). As a case study, we conducted a secondary analysis of a retrospective cross-sectional cohort study using electronic health record data from Dutch general practitioners, linked with sociodemographic data from Statistics Netherlands. The dataset included 112,872 patients, of whom 16.2% had a non-Western migration background. Hospitalization in the following year was modeled using Johns Hopkins Aggregated Diagnosis Groups (ADGs). We trained logistic regression and XGBoost models on different subgroup datasets to evaluate performance disparities using fairness metrics. To analyze feature-level contributions to predictions and errors, we applied Kernel Shapley Values and Cohort Shapley methods. Exploratory analysis revealed significant differences in socioeconomic status (SES) and ADG distributions between Dutch and non-Western groups, though Multiple Correspondence Analysis showed minimal structural variation. Mediation analysis indicated that the effect of migration background on hospitalization was largely mediated by SES, with potential unobserved confounding. While standard fairness metrics indicated modest bias in favor of non-Western patients, deeper feature-level analyses revealed subgroup-specific patterns of variable importance that suggest potentially less favorable underlying conditions. For instance, malignancy (ADG 32) had a stronger predictive impact among non-Western patients but contributed less to false negatives compared to Dutch patients, possibly reflecting structural disparities in cancer diagnosis and care. These findings highlight the need for contextual, multi-level evaluations of algorithmic bias. Fairness in healthcare algorithms must be approached as a socio-technical challenge, requiring multidisciplinary collaboration to uncover root causes in the processes that generate the data. Author summary: Unfair algorithms often originate in the data itself. To help detect such hidden biases, we combined known data science methods into a diagnostic approach named Feature-Level Bias Identification And Sensemaking (FL-BIAS). Using Dutch general practitioner records linked with national demographic information, we explored how patient migration background, after controlling for socioeconomic status affects predictions of hospital admissions. We discovered that certain medical conditions, such as cancer and chronic illness, contributed differently to predictions for Dutch compared to non-Western patients, revealing subtle but important patterns in how data reflects social inequalities. Our goal was to better understand how inequalities can be hidden in health data, supporting the design of fairer and more transparent healthcare AI tools that truly serve all patients.", "abstract_shown": true, "affiliations": [ "Department of Engineering Systems & Services, Faculty of Technology, Policy and Management, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands.", "Department of Public Health and Primary Care, Leiden University Medical Centre, The Hague, The Netherlands.", "Leiden Institute of Advanced Computer Science (LIACS), Faculty of Science, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands." ], "article_type": "Research Article", "arxiv": null, "author_total": 5, "authors": [ { "affs": [ 0, 1 ], "name": "Cathleen S Parsons", "orcid": "0009-0001-4384-1737" }, { "affs": [ 1 ], "name": "Shelley-Ann M Girwar" }, { "affs": [ 0 ], "name": "Sepinoud Azimi", "orcid": "0000-0002-4739-9560" }, { "affs": [ 1, 2 ], "name": "Marco R Spruit", "orcid": "0000-0002-9237-221X" }, { "affs": [ 1 ], "name": "Marcel R Haas", "orcid": "0000-0003-2581-8370" } ], "bibtex": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/f8nkxdpgg8t3k.bib", "cited_by": 0, "doi": "10.1371/journal.pdig.0001105", "fulltext_url": "https://journals.plos.org/digitalhealth/article?id=10.1371/journal.pdig.0001105", "id": "f8nkxdpgg8t3k", "issns": [ "2767-3170" ], "landing_url": "https://journals.plos.org/digitalhealth/article?id=10.1371/journal.pdig.0001105", "language": "eng", "licence": "CC-BY", "licence_label": "CC BY", "licence_source": "article", "licence_url": "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "metadata_licence": null, "native_subjects": [ [ "openalex", "3311|Ethics and Social Impacts of AI" ], [ "plos", "/Computer and information sciences/Artificial intelligence/Machine learning/Machine learning algorithms" ], [ "plos", "/Computer and information sciences/Information technology/Health information technology/Electronic medical records" ], [ "plos", "/Medicine and health sciences/Epidemiology/Medical risk factors" ], [ "plos", "/Medicine and health sciences/Health care/Health information technology/Electronic medical records" ], [ "plos", "/Medicine and health sciences/Health care/Socioeconomic aspects of health" ], [ "plos", "/Medicine and health sciences/Public and occupational health/Socioeconomic aspects of health" ], [ "plos", "/People and places/Geographical locations/Europe/European Union/Netherlands" ], [ "plos", "/People and places/Population groupings/Ethnicities/European people/Dutch people" ], [ "plos", "/Physical sciences/Mathematics/Applied mathematics/Algorithms" ], [ "plos", "/Physical sciences/Mathematics/Applied mathematics/Algorithms/Machine learning algorithms" ], [ "plos", "/Physical sciences/Mathematics/Statistics/Statistical methods/Forecasting" ], [ "plos", "/Research and analysis methods/Mathematical and statistical techniques/Statistical methods/Forecasting" ], [ "plos", "/Research and analysis methods/Simulation and modeling/Algorithms" ], [ "plos", "/Research and analysis methods/Simulation and modeling/Algorithms/Machine learning algorithms" ] ], "openalex": "W7223682945", "pdf_url": "https://journals.plos.org/digitalhealth/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pdig.0001105&type=printable", "pmcid": "PMC13704874", "pmid": "42932339", "published": "2026-10-26", "publisher": "Public Library of Science", "ris": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/f8nkxdpgg8t3k.ris", "sources": [ { "first_seen": "2026-10-30T12:17:17Z", "native_id": "10.1371/journal.pdig.0001105", "source": "plos", "url": "https://journals.plos.org/digitalhealth/article?id=10.1371/journal.pdig.0001105" }, { "first_seen": "2026-10-30T12:22:01Z", "native_id": "MED:42932339", "source": "europepmc", "url": "https://europepmc.org/article/MED/42932339" } ], "subjects": [ { "field": "mathematics", "origin": "plos:statistical methods", "subfield": "statistics" }, { "field": "medicine", "origin": "plos:epidemiology", "subfield": "epidemiology-public-health" } ], "title": "Refocusing algorithmic fairness on feature-level bias: A diagnostic approach using dutch EHR data", "title_text": "Refocusing algorithmic fairness on feature-level bias: A diagnostic approach using dutch EHR data", "type": "peer-reviewed", "updated_at": "2026-10-30T12:22:01Z", "url": "https://research.draconitic.com/paper/f8nkxdpgg8t3k", "venue": "PLOS Digital Health", "versions": [] }