Bioeconomic optimization of zinc and iron agronomic biofortification in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata [L.] Walp.) in Mozambique under tropical field conditions
6 affiliations
- 1Department of Crop Science and Horticulture, College of Agriculture, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania
- 2Licungo University, Murrópue Campus, Quelimane, Zambézia, Mozambique
- 3Regional Research Center of Leadership for Rice, Instituto de Investigação Agrária de Moçambique, Namacurra, Zambézia, Mozambique
- 4Department of Agriculture and Animal Health, School of Agriculture and Life Sciences, University of South Africa, Roodepoort, South Africa
- 5Department of Phytotechnics, Food Technology and Socioeconomics, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Ilha Solteira, Brazil
- 6Department of Soil and Geological Sciences, College of Agriculture, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania
Abstract
Agronomic biofortification with zinc (Zn) and iron (Fe) has emerged as a promising approach to enhance crop productivity while improving food and nutritional security. However, fertilizer recommendations based exclusively on maximum biological yield may not maximize farmers’ economic returns. This study integrated agronomic and economic analyses to identify the biologically and economically optimal Zn and Fe fertilization strategies for cowpea (Vigna unguiculata [L.] Walp.) under tropical field conditions in Mozambique. A randomized complete block design with a 3 × 4 × 4 factorial arrangement was used to evaluate three fertilization methods (soil, foliar, and combined soil + foliar) and four application rates of elemental Zn and Fe. Grain yield response was adequately described by a second-order polynomial regression model (R2 = 0.767), with maximum technical efficiency predicted at 18.92 kg ha ⁻ ¹ Zn and 19.17 kg ha ⁻ ¹ Fe. In contrast, maximum economic efficiency was achieved at lower application rates (16.94 kg ha ⁻ ¹ Zn and 10.09 kg ha ⁻ ¹ Fe), reducing Fe input by 47.4% while maintaining more than 97% of the maximum predicted grain yield and increasing net profit. Across the evaluated treatments, the combined soil + foliar application produced greater grain yield and agronomic efficiency than either application method alone. Economic robustness was further evaluated through break-even, sensitivity, and stochastic risk analyses, which indicated positive economic performance across the evaluated treatnebts under the agronomic, environmental, and economic conditions considered in this study. Within the agronomic, environmental, and economic conditions evaluated in this single-site, single-season study, the economic optimum was reached before the biological optimum, demonstrating that integrating agronomic and economic optimization can substantially reduce micronutrient inputs while maintaining high productivity and profitability. These findings provide an evidence-based framework for developing economically efficient Zn and Fe fertilization strategies for cowpea under tropical smallholder farming systems.
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BibTeX
@article{carlos2026bioeconomic,
title = {{Bioeconomic optimization of zinc and iron agronomic biofortification in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata [L.] Walp.) in Mozambique under tropical field conditions}},
author = {Tancredo José Carlos and Leonel Domingos Moiana and Omar Jorge Sabbag and Boniface Hussein J. Massawe and Akwilina Wendelin Mwanri and Kallunde Pilly Sibuga},
journal = {PLOS One},
year = {2026},
month = sep,
doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0357473},
url = {https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357473},
note = {CC BY 4.0},
}
RIS
TY - JOUR
TI - Bioeconomic optimization of zinc and iron agronomic biofortification in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata [L.] Walp.) in Mozambique under tropical field conditions
AU - Tancredo José Carlos
AU - Leonel Domingos Moiana
AU - Omar Jorge Sabbag
AU - Boniface Hussein J. Massawe
AU - Akwilina Wendelin Mwanri
AU - Kallunde Pilly Sibuga
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/09/03
JO - PLOS One
DO - 10.1371/journal.pone.0357473
UR - https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0357473
AB - Agronomic biofortification with zinc (Zn) and iron (Fe) has emerged as a promising approach to enhance crop productivity while improving food and nutritional security. However, fertilizer recommendations based exclusively on maximum biological yield may not maximize farmers’ economic returns. This study integrated agronomic and economic analyses to identify the biologically and economically optimal Zn and Fe fertilization strategies for cowpea (Vigna unguiculata [L.] Walp.) under tropical field conditions in Mozambique. A randomized complete block design with a 3 × 4 × 4 factorial arrangement was used to evaluate three fertilization methods (soil, foliar, and combined soil + foliar) and four application rates of elemental Zn and Fe. Grain yield response was adequately described by a second-order polynomial regression model (R2 = 0.767), with maximum technical efficiency predicted at 18.92 kg ha ⁻ ¹ Zn and 19.17 kg ha ⁻ ¹ Fe. In contrast, maximum economic efficiency was achieved at lower application rates (16.94 kg ha ⁻ ¹ Zn and 10.09 kg ha ⁻ ¹ Fe), reducing Fe input by 47.4% while maintaining more than 97% of the maximum predicted grain yield and increasing net profit. Across the evaluated treatments, the combined soil + foliar application produced greater grain yield and agronomic efficiency than either application method alone. Economic robustness was further evaluated through break-even, sensitivity, and stochastic risk analyses, which indicated positive economic performance across the evaluated treatnebts under the agronomic, environmental, and economic conditions considered in this study. Within the agronomic, environmental, and economic conditions evaluated in this single-site, single-season study, the economic optimum was reached before the biological optimum, demonstrating that integrating agronomic and economic optimization can substantially reduce micronutrient inputs while maintaining high productivity and profitability. These findings provide an evidence-based framework for developing economically efficient Zn and Fe fertilization strategies for cowpea under tropical smallholder farming systems.
SN - 1932-6203
ER -