The impact of secondary school closures on pandemic control: a systematic literature review
Abstract
During the COVID-19 pandemic, secondary schools (∼ages 11-19) were closed for a substantial time, causing educational disruption and widening socio-economic inequalities. Clear evidence on the transmission impact of secondary school closures is essential to inform future pandemic policymaking, yet remains limited. There are two issues: analyses often do not disaggregate primary and secondary education, despite differences in contact patterns and transmission potential; and closures coincided with other public health measures, complicating causal attribution. We synthesized evidence on the population-level impact of secondary school closures on transmission, and considered how studies attempted to isolate this effect. We conducted a systematic review following PRISMA guidelines. Five databases were searched in March 2025 for school closure/reopening and SARS-CoV-2/influenza. Title/abstract screening combined manual review (Covidence) with machine-assisted screening (ASReview). Full-text screening, quality assessment, and data extraction were completed in Covidence. Eligible studies quantified changes in population-level transmission associated with secondary school closure/reopening. Of 6,334 records identified, 23 studies were included. Many were excluded for not distinguishing secondary schools (or ages 11-19) from other school settings. Included studies showed heterogeneity in outcome measures and contextual factors. Nineteen studies addressed SARS-CoV-2 and four influenza. Findings were varied: some studies reported transmission reductions following closures or increases after reopening, while others found minimal effects on transmission. The utility of existing COVID-19 literature is limited when school settings are not clearly defined. Because adolescents and children differ in contact patterns, age- or school-level disaggregation is needed for valid inference. This review strengthens the evidence base for more informed decision-making in future pandemics.
Key messages: • Clear evidence on the population-level impact of secondary school closures on respiratory viruses is limited and methodologically heterogeneous, due to poor school-level disaggregation.
• Better age- or school-specific definitions are needed to improve causal attribution and strengthen the evidence base for infectious disease control policies in future pandemics.
Related
- The role of big data analytics in financial fraud detection: A systematic literature review
- Governing Agentic AI in Africa: A Systematic Literature Review of Ethical Challenges, Framework Gaps, and Ubuntu-Informed Governance Solutions
- Hierarchical Cognitive Structuring and Game Mechanics Alignment in Educational Game Systems: A Systematic Literature Review
- Graph-Enhanced Knowledge Tracing for Explainable Learner Modeling: A Systematic Literature Review
- Mapping E-Readiness Dimensions for Digital Village Development: A Systematic Literature and Bibliometric Review
BibTeX
@article{eck2026impact,
title = {{The impact of secondary school closures on pandemic control: a systematic literature review}},
author = {L C Van Eck and T Florschütz and C M De Korne and PCJL Bruijning-Verhagen and AJM Schreijer},
journal = {The European Journal of Public Health},
year = {2026},
month = oct,
doi = {10.1093/eurpub/ckag169.1645},
url = {https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckag169.1645},
note = {CC BY-NC 4.0},
}
RIS
TY - JOUR
TI - The impact of secondary school closures on pandemic control: a systematic literature review
AU - L C Van Eck
AU - T Florschütz
AU - C M De Korne
AU - PCJL Bruijning-Verhagen
AU - AJM Schreijer
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/10/01
JO - The European Journal of Public Health
DO - 10.1093/eurpub/ckag169.1645
UR - https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckag169.1645
AB - During the COVID-19 pandemic, secondary schools (∼ages 11-19) were closed for a substantial time, causing educational disruption and widening socio-economic inequalities. Clear evidence on the transmission impact of secondary school closures is essential to inform future pandemic policymaking, yet remains limited. There are two issues: analyses often do not disaggregate primary and secondary education, despite differences in contact patterns and transmission potential; and closures coincided with other public health measures, complicating causal attribution. We synthesized evidence on the population-level impact of secondary school closures on transmission, and considered how studies attempted to isolate this effect. We conducted a systematic review following PRISMA guidelines. Five databases were searched in March 2025 for school closure/reopening and SARS-CoV-2/influenza. Title/abstract screening combined manual review (Covidence) with machine-assisted screening (ASReview). Full-text screening, quality assessment, and data extraction were completed in Covidence. Eligible studies quantified changes in population-level transmission associated with secondary school closure/reopening. Of 6,334 records identified, 23 studies were included. Many were excluded for not distinguishing secondary schools (or ages 11-19) from other school settings. Included studies showed heterogeneity in outcome measures and contextual factors. Nineteen studies addressed SARS-CoV-2 and four influenza. Findings were varied: some studies reported transmission reductions following closures or increases after reopening, while others found minimal effects on transmission. The utility of existing COVID-19 literature is limited when school settings are not clearly defined. Because adolescents and children differ in contact patterns, age- or school-level disaggregation is needed for valid inference. This review strengthens the evidence base for more informed decision-making in future pandemics. Key messages: • Clear evidence on the population-level impact of secondary school closures on respiratory viruses is limited and methodologically heterogeneous, due to poor school-level disaggregation. • Better age- or school-specific definitions are needed to improve causal attribution and strengthen the evidence base for infectious disease control policies in future pandemics.
SN - 1101-1262
SN - 1464-360X
ER -