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Peer-reviewedCC BY 4.0Frontiers in Immunology

Viruses in the tumor immune microenvironment: implications for immunotherapy

  • Xuemin Chen1,2,3
  • Ping Ni1,2,3
  • Wei Li1,2,3
  • Mingli Wu1,2,3
  • Jun Li1,2,3
  • Weinan Lu1,2,3
  • Xuemei Li1,2,3
  • Li Wang1,2,3
  1. 1Department of Gastroenterology, Clinical Medical College and the First Affiliated Hospital of Chengdu Medical College
  2. 2Key Laboratory of Digestive Microecology Medicine of Sichuan Health Commission
  3. 3Key Laboratory of Digestive System Tumors and Microenvironment of Sichuan Provincial University
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Abstract

The intricate interplay between viruses and the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) plays a pivotal role in tumor initiation, progression, and response to immunotherapy. Viruses can directly infect tumor cells, modulate immune cell functions, and reshape cytokine networks, thereby influencing the composition and functionality of the TIME. This review systematically examines how viral infections impact TIME by altering tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes, cytokine profiles, and immune checkpoint expression. Additionally, the role of virus-associated antigens as immune targets and the mechanisms of virus-induced immune evasion that undermine immunotherapeutic efficacy are discussed. By integrating recent advances from single-cell omics, spatial transcriptomics, and clinical studies, this article aims to elucidate the core mechanisms underlying virus-TIME interactions. Furthermore, it highlights the therapeutic potential and challenges of virus-based immunotherapies, including oncolytic virotherapy and viral vector vaccines. This comprehensive overview provides a theoretical foundation for optimizing immunotherapeutic strategies that leverage viral components to enhance anti-tumor immunity and overcome immune resistance.

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Cite

BibTeXRIS
BibTeX
@article{chen2026viruses,
  title = {{Viruses in the tumor immune microenvironment: implications for immunotherapy}},
  author = {Xuemin Chen and Ping Ni and Wei Li and Mingli Wu and Jun Li and Weinan Lu and Xuemei Li and Li Wang},
  journal = {Frontiers in Immunology},
  year = {2026},
  month = oct,
  doi = {10.3389/fimmu.2026.1958538},
  url = {https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2026.1958538/full},
  note = {CC BY 4.0},
}
RIS
TY  - JOUR
TI  - Viruses in the tumor immune microenvironment: implications for immunotherapy
AU  - Xuemin Chen
AU  - Ping Ni
AU  - Wei Li
AU  - Mingli Wu
AU  - Jun Li
AU  - Weinan Lu
AU  - Xuemei Li
AU  - Li Wang
PY  - 2026
DA  - 2026/10/21
JO  - Frontiers in Immunology
DO  - 10.3389/fimmu.2026.1958538
UR  - https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2026.1958538/full
AB  - The intricate interplay between viruses and the tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) plays a pivotal role in tumor initiation, progression, and response to immunotherapy. Viruses can directly infect tumor cells, modulate immune cell functions, and reshape cytokine networks, thereby influencing the composition and functionality of the TIME. This review systematically examines how viral infections impact TIME by altering tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes, cytokine profiles, and immune checkpoint expression. Additionally, the role of virus-associated antigens as immune targets and the mechanisms of virus-induced immune evasion that undermine immunotherapeutic efficacy are discussed. By integrating recent advances from single-cell omics, spatial transcriptomics, and clinical studies, this article aims to elucidate the core mechanisms underlying virus-TIME interactions. Furthermore, it highlights the therapeutic potential and challenges of virus-based immunotherapies, including oncolytic virotherapy and viral vector vaccines. This comprehensive overview provides a theoretical foundation for optimizing immunotherapeutic strategies that leverage viral components to enhance anti-tumor immunity and overcome immune resistance.
SN  - 1664-3224
ER  -