Skip to content
DraconiticResearch
Search Sources API
203,948 studies31 sourcesUpdated 10 min ago
Peer-reviewedCC BYMaternal & child nutrition

Three Decades of Socioeconomic Inequality in India's Breastfeeding Indicators, 1993-2021.

  • Rajesh Kumar Rai1,2,3,4,5
  • Jan-Walter De Neve1,6
  • Sabri Bromage7,8
  • Rockli Kim9,10
  • S V Subramanian11,12
12 affiliations
  1. 1Division of Global Health Management and Policy, School of Public Health, San Diego State University, San Diego, California, USA.
  2. 2Birbhum Population Project, Society for Health and Demographic Surveillance, Suri, West Bengal, India.
  3. 3ImpactLoop LTD, London, UK.
  4. 4Human Nutrition Unit, Institute of Nutrition, Mahidol University, Phutthamonthon, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand.
  5. 5Department of Global Health and Population, Harvard T H Chan School of Public Health, Boston, USA.
  6. 6Heidelberg Institute of Global Health, Faculty of Medicine and University Hospital, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.
  7. 7Community Nutrition Unit, Institute of Nutrition, Mahidol University, Phutthamonthon, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand.
  8. 8Department of Nutrition, Harvard T H Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
  9. 9Division of Health Policy and Management, College of Health Science, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea.
  10. 10Interdisciplinary Program in Precision Public Health, Department of Public Health Sciences, Graduate School of Korea University, Seoul, South Korea.
  11. 11Harvard Center for Population and Development Studies, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.
  12. 12Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Harvard T H Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
Read full textPDFDOICite

Abstract

Although existing literature heavily focuses on the health outcomes of exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) in India, studies addressing socioeconomic inequalities across a broad spectrum of breastfeeding indicators remain scarce. We utilized five waves of National Family Health Survey data (1993-2021) to analyze temporal trends and socioeconomic inequalities, proxied by maternal education (no formal schooling, 1st-5th grade, 6th-8th grade, 9th-12th grade, and above 12th grade) and household wealth (poorest, poorer, middle, richer, and richest) across six World Health Organization-recommended indicators: ever breastfed, early initiation of breastfeeding (EIBF), exclusive breastfeeding for the first 2 days after birth, EBF, mixed milk feeding (MixMF), and continued breastfeeding. We estimated absolute and relative inequalities between the lowest and highest categories of each socioeconomic marker, followed by the computation of the Annual Absolute Change to assess progress over time (1993-2021). Between 1993 and 2021, absolute inequality in EIBF remained stagnant between the two extreme maternal education levels. EBF disparities shifted significantly; the initial advantage held by mothers with no formal schooling in 1993 narrowed as the gap closed, a trend mirrored across household wealth quintiles where the poorest maintained a higher, albeit diminishing, lead in EBF prevalence. EIBF increased at an equal annualized rate across both the lowest and highest education strata, and MixMF rose more sharply among the poorest households. Addressing these shifting socioeconomic disparities is critical for achieving equitable breastfeeding outcomes across all strata, especially given the recent (2024) reported decline in EBF prevalence nationally.

Related

  1. Two decades of socioeconomic inequalities in the prevalence of untreated dental caries in early childhood: Results from three birth cohorts in southern Brazil
    Sarah Arangurem Karam, Francine dos Santos Costa, Karen G Peres +10
    Community Dentistry and Oral EpidemiologyPeer-reviewedLicence not stated26 citedGeneral biologyEpidemiology & public healthHAL
  2. Socioeconomic inequality in the completion of the continuum of care for maternal, newborn, and child health in Malawi
    Redson Mwandama, Spy Munthali
    Frontiers in reproductive healthPeer-reviewedCC BYFull textGeneral medicineEurope PMC
  3. Association between breastfeeding indicators and early childhood development: results from the Brazilian National Survey on Child Nutrition Associação entre indicadores de aleitamento materno e desenvolvimento infantil: resultados do Estudo Nacional de Alimentação e Nutrição Infantil Asociación entre los indicadores de lactancia materna y el desarrollo en la primera infancia: resultados del Estudio Nacional de Alimentación y Nutrición Infantil
    Nathalia Cristina Freitas-Costa, Davi Borges Damasceno, Juliana Vieira de Castro Mello +6
    Cadernos de saude publicaPeer-reviewedCC BYFull textEpidemiology & public healthEurope PMCEurope PMC
  4. Three decades of sexual and reproductive health literacy and information behaviour research on adolescent and young adult males: a scoping review
    Ebenezer Martin-Yeboah, Anabel Quan-Haase
    BMC Public HealthPeer-reviewedCC BY-NC-ND 4.0Epidemiology & public healthCrossref
  5. Inequality embodied: A systematic review of the spatial and temporal variation of cortical bone health measures and socioeconomic status
    Phoebe Meyrick, Laura A B Wilson, Justyna J Miszkiewicz
    Bone ReportsPeer-reviewedCC BYFull textSurgery & anaesthesiaDOAJEurope PMCEurope PMCPMC

Cite

BibTeXRIS
BibTeX
@article{rai2026three,
  title = {{Three Decades of Socioeconomic Inequality in India's Breastfeeding Indicators, 1993-2021.}},
  author = {Rajesh Kumar Rai and Jan-Walter De Neve and Sabri Bromage and Rockli Kim and S V Subramanian},
  journal = {Maternal \& child nutrition},
  year = {2026},
  month = oct,
  doi = {10.1111/mcn.70258},
  url = {https://europepmc.org/article/MED/42876434},
  note = {CC BY},
}
RIS
TY  - JOUR
TI  - Three Decades of Socioeconomic Inequality in India's Breastfeeding Indicators, 1993-2021.
AU  - Rajesh Kumar Rai
AU  - Jan-Walter De Neve
AU  - Sabri Bromage
AU  - Rockli Kim
AU  - S V Subramanian
PY  - 2026
DA  - 2026/10/01
JO  - Maternal & child nutrition
DO  - 10.1111/mcn.70258
UR  - https://europepmc.org/article/MED/42876434
AB  - Although existing literature heavily focuses on the health outcomes of exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) in India, studies addressing socioeconomic inequalities across a broad spectrum of breastfeeding indicators remain scarce. We utilized five waves of National Family Health Survey data (1993-2021) to analyze temporal trends and socioeconomic inequalities, proxied by maternal education (no formal schooling, 1st-5th grade, 6th-8th grade, 9th-12th grade, and above 12th grade) and household wealth (poorest, poorer, middle, richer, and richest) across six World Health Organization-recommended indicators: ever breastfed, early initiation of breastfeeding (EIBF), exclusive breastfeeding for the first 2 days after birth, EBF, mixed milk feeding (MixMF), and continued breastfeeding. We estimated absolute and relative inequalities between the lowest and highest categories of each socioeconomic marker, followed by the computation of the Annual Absolute Change to assess progress over time (1993-2021). Between 1993 and 2021, absolute inequality in EIBF remained stagnant between the two extreme maternal education levels. EBF disparities shifted significantly; the initial advantage held by mothers with no formal schooling in 1993 narrowed as the gap closed, a trend mirrored across household wealth quintiles where the poorest maintained a higher, albeit diminishing, lead in EBF prevalence. EIBF increased at an equal annualized rate across both the lowest and highest education strata, and MixMF rose more sharply among the poorest households. Addressing these shifting socioeconomic disparities is critical for achieving equitable breastfeeding outcomes across all strata, especially given the recent (2024) reported decline in EBF prevalence nationally.
SN  - 1740-8695
SN  - 1740-8709
ER  -