Time-Dependent Dispersion of TiO2 Nanoparticles in 3D-Printed Denture Base Resin Using Probe Sonication
- 1Department of Prosthodontics, College of Dentistry, Hawler Medical University, Erbil 44001, Iraq
Abstract
Titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles (NPs) can improve the performance of 3D-printed denture base resins; however, the reinforcing benefit depends on achieving uniform dispersion, and the effect of probe-sonication time on NP dispersion remains unclear. This study aimed to determine the sonication time (among 3, 5, and 7 min) producing the most qualitatively uniform TiO2 distribution. TiO2 NPs were silanized using 3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl methacrylate, incorporated at 0.3 wt.% into a light-polymerizing 3D-printing resin, and probe sonicated. The resulting specimens were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and tested for surface roughness (Ra, μm) and Vickers hardness. Qualitatively, increasing sonication time progressively improved dispersion: the 7 min group showed the most homogeneous microstructure and titanium map. FTIR spectra were comparable across the groups, indicating preserved matrix chemistry. Surface roughness and hardness were not significantly different among the groups (p = 0.686 and p = 0.510, respectively). The 7 min group had the most qualitatively uniform TiO2 distribution. Although it had the numerically lowest surface hardness, it was not comparatively statistically significant. Therefore, within the tested conditions, the 7 min can be described as the most suitable duration for the primary dispersion objective. Additional tests (flexural strength, flexural modulus, and impact toughness) and degree-of-conversion analysis are necessary to confirm the effects of different sonication times.
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BibTeX
@article{hadi2026timedependent,
title = {{Time-Dependent Dispersion of TiO2 Nanoparticles in 3D-Printed Denture Base Resin Using Probe Sonication}},
author = {Berivan Nawzad Hadi and Rizgar Mohammed Ameen Hasan},
journal = {Polymers},
year = {2026},
month = oct,
doi = {10.3390/polym18192407},
url = {https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4360/18/19/2407},
note = {CC BY 4.0},
}
RIS
TY - JOUR
TI - Time-Dependent Dispersion of TiO2 Nanoparticles in 3D-Printed Denture Base Resin Using Probe Sonication
AU - Berivan Nawzad Hadi
AU - Rizgar Mohammed Ameen Hasan
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/10/02
JO - Polymers
DO - 10.3390/polym18192407
UR - https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4360/18/19/2407
AB - Titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles (NPs) can improve the performance of 3D-printed denture base resins; however, the reinforcing benefit depends on achieving uniform dispersion, and the effect of probe-sonication time on NP dispersion remains unclear. This study aimed to determine the sonication time (among 3, 5, and 7 min) producing the most qualitatively uniform TiO2 distribution. TiO2 NPs were silanized using 3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl methacrylate, incorporated at 0.3 wt.% into a light-polymerizing 3D-printing resin, and probe sonicated. The resulting specimens were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and tested for surface roughness (Ra, μm) and Vickers hardness. Qualitatively, increasing sonication time progressively improved dispersion: the 7 min group showed the most homogeneous microstructure and titanium map. FTIR spectra were comparable across the groups, indicating preserved matrix chemistry. Surface roughness and hardness were not significantly different among the groups (p = 0.686 and p = 0.510, respectively). The 7 min group had the most qualitatively uniform TiO2 distribution. Although it had the numerically lowest surface hardness, it was not comparatively statistically significant. Therefore, within the tested conditions, the 7 min can be described as the most suitable duration for the primary dispersion objective. Additional tests (flexural strength, flexural modulus, and impact toughness) and degree-of-conversion analysis are necessary to confirm the effects of different sonication times.
SN - 2073-4360
ER -