Sports facilities as substitutes for exercise-induced well-being: Evidence from four-wave CFPS panel data
- 1University of Jinan, Jinan, Shandong, China
- 2Shandong Urban Construction Vocational College, Jinan, Shandong, China
Abstract
Background: The relationship between sports participation and psychological well-being is well-documented, yet empirical evidence regarding the moderating role of community sports facilities remains inconclusive. This study tests whether facilities amplify or attenuate the well-being returns to exercise, using four-wave panel data from China (CFPS 2014, 2018, 2020, 2022). Methods: Linear regression models with individual fixed effects were constructed using China Family Panel Studies data (CFPS 2014, 2018, 2020, and 2022; the 2016 wave was excluded because its happiness item reached only 2.5% of adults). The analytical sample comprised 71,326 observations from 23,818 individuals. Self-rated happiness (0−10 scale) was regressed on binary exercise participation, community sports facility count (0−5+), and their interaction, controlling for age and log household income. Robustness was tested via instrumental variable estimation (community mean exercise rate) and propensity score matching. Results: Exercise positively predicted happiness (β = +0.074, p < 0.001) in the baseline fixed-effects model. The exercise × facility interaction was directionally consistent with the substitution hypothesis but not statistically significant (β = −0.022, p = 0.075). Marginal exercise effects declined from +0.095 in zero-facility communities (p < 0.001) to non-significance where three or more facility types were available. Instrumental variable estimation results (first-stage F = 3231.25; second-stage β = −0.158, p = 0.117). The IV estimate did not reach statistical significance, providing limited evidence on treatment effect heterogeneity. Four-wave balanced panel estimates confirmed the baseline finding (β = +0.074, p < 0.01). CES-D mediation accounted for only approximately 4.6% of the total effect. Conclusions: Exercise benefits subjective well-being most where community sports facilities are least available—a directionally consistent substitution pattern. Facility investment may yield greater marginal returns when targeted at underserved communities.
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BibTeX
@article{wang2026sports,
title = {{Sports facilities as substitutes for exercise-induced well-being: Evidence from four-wave CFPS panel data}},
author = {Yang Wang and Liman Wang},
journal = {PLOS One},
year = {2026},
month = sep,
doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0359511},
url = {https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0359511},
note = {CC BY 4.0},
}
RIS
TY - JOUR
TI - Sports facilities as substitutes for exercise-induced well-being: Evidence from four-wave CFPS panel data
AU - Yang Wang
AU - Liman Wang
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/09/30
JO - PLOS One
DO - 10.1371/journal.pone.0359511
UR - https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0359511
AB - Background: The relationship between sports participation and psychological well-being is well-documented, yet empirical evidence regarding the moderating role of community sports facilities remains inconclusive. This study tests whether facilities amplify or attenuate the well-being returns to exercise, using four-wave panel data from China (CFPS 2014, 2018, 2020, 2022). Methods: Linear regression models with individual fixed effects were constructed using China Family Panel Studies data (CFPS 2014, 2018, 2020, and 2022; the 2016 wave was excluded because its happiness item reached only 2.5% of adults). The analytical sample comprised 71,326 observations from 23,818 individuals. Self-rated happiness (0−10 scale) was regressed on binary exercise participation, community sports facility count (0−5+), and their interaction, controlling for age and log household income. Robustness was tested via instrumental variable estimation (community mean exercise rate) and propensity score matching. Results: Exercise positively predicted happiness (β = +0.074, p < 0.001) in the baseline fixed-effects model. The exercise × facility interaction was directionally consistent with the substitution hypothesis but not statistically significant (β = −0.022, p = 0.075). Marginal exercise effects declined from +0.095 in zero-facility communities (p < 0.001) to non-significance where three or more facility types were available. Instrumental variable estimation results (first-stage F = 3231.25; second-stage β = −0.158, p = 0.117). The IV estimate did not reach statistical significance, providing limited evidence on treatment effect heterogeneity. Four-wave balanced panel estimates confirmed the baseline finding (β = +0.074, p < 0.01). CES-D mediation accounted for only approximately 4.6% of the total effect. Conclusions: Exercise benefits subjective well-being most where community sports facilities are least available—a directionally consistent substitution pattern. Facility investment may yield greater marginal returns when targeted at underserved communities.
SN - 1932-6203
ER -