Problematic smartphone use and academic procrastination over an academic year: a four-wave random intercept cross-lagged panel study of Chinese undergraduates.
- 1Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics, Hangzhou, China.
Abstract
Problematic smartphone use (PSU) and academic procrastination (AP) are reliably correlated among university students, but the evidence base is almost entirely cross-sectional, and the only existing longitudinal study tested a single direction using a model that cannot separate stable trait-like co-occurrence from genuine within-person dynamics. This study used a four-wave Random Intercept Cross-Lagged Panel Model (RI-CLPM) to test both directions of within-person prediction simultaneously in a sample of Chinese undergraduates (N = 512 at intake, 422 retained by the fourth wave) surveyed across a full academic year, and to test whether the well-documented PSU-AP association persists after accounting for trait self-control and trait negative affect. The model fit the data well, χ²(45) = 67.72, CFI = 0.994, RMSEA = 0.031, SRMR = 0.022. Within-person increases in PSU predicted later increases in AP in one interval only, the final T3 → T4 interval (β = 0.374, p < 0.001); the two earlier intervals were non-significant, and a stationarity test confirmed that the three are not statistically equivalent, Δχ²(2) = 11.16, p = 0.004. The pooled estimate, γ = 0.213, is accordingly reported as a descriptive summary of a heterogeneous set of paths rather than as a stable within-person effect, and the wave-specific estimates, the T3 → T4 path in particular, carry the evidence for H1. Within-person increases in AP were not detected as predictors of later PSU at any wave (pooled δ = -0.013, p = 0.863, a defensible single estimate since these three waves were statistically equivalent); a design-stage Monte Carlo check gave about 0.81 power for an effect of the hypothesized size, so this is a reasonably informative null: the AP → PSU pathway was not detected at a three-month lag in this sample, which is not the same as showing it absent. The two directions differed in estimated magnitude; an equality-constraint likelihood-ratio test within the RI-CLPM confirmed the asymmetry at the final interval, Δχ²(1) = 9.16, p = 0.002, although the γ side rests on a single interval, so the asymmetry is specific to the T3 → T4 window. The random-intercept correlation between PSU and AP remained significant in the full model adjusting for all six T1 covariates (r = 0.250, p < 0.001), indicating a substantial trait-level component. However, the pooled cross-lagged estimates did not hold their values once a common-method factor was added. That specification is too weakly identified to re-estimate the correlation at all, so shared-method inflation cannot be excluded for either. A traditional cross-lagged panel model without this trait/state decomposition showed markedly inflated stability and cross-lagged estimates by comparison. PSU met metric but not scalar longitudinal invariance, which qualifies the interpretation of within-person change on that construct. However, refitting the model on an item-reduced PSU composite left the focal estimate essentially unchanged (T3 → T4 β = 0.378). These findings indicate that the PSU-AP relationship, as observed here, is interval-specific rather than uniform, directionally asymmetric within the one interval in which a within-person effect was detected, and only partially dynamic; they are best read as hypotheses about how future intervention research might be sequenced and targeted rather than as direct guidance for practice.
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BibTeX
@article{che2026problematic,
title = {{Problematic smartphone use and academic procrastination over an academic year: a four-wave random intercept cross-lagged panel study of Chinese undergraduates.}},
author = {Peng Che},
journal = {Frontiers in psychology},
year = {2026},
month = oct,
doi = {10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1935647},
url = {https://europepmc.org/article/MED/42903261},
note = {CC BY},
}
RIS
TY - JOUR
TI - Problematic smartphone use and academic procrastination over an academic year: a four-wave random intercept cross-lagged panel study of Chinese undergraduates.
AU - Peng Che
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/10/06
JO - Frontiers in psychology
DO - 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1935647
UR - https://europepmc.org/article/MED/42903261
AB - Problematic smartphone use (PSU) and academic procrastination (AP) are reliably correlated among university students, but the evidence base is almost entirely cross-sectional, and the only existing longitudinal study tested a single direction using a model that cannot separate stable trait-like co-occurrence from genuine within-person dynamics. This study used a four-wave Random Intercept Cross-Lagged Panel Model (RI-CLPM) to test both directions of within-person prediction simultaneously in a sample of Chinese undergraduates (N = 512 at intake, 422 retained by the fourth wave) surveyed across a full academic year, and to test whether the well-documented PSU-AP association persists after accounting for trait self-control and trait negative affect. The model fit the data well, χ²(45) = 67.72, CFI = 0.994, RMSEA = 0.031, SRMR = 0.022. Within-person increases in PSU predicted later increases in AP in one interval only, the final T3 → T4 interval (β = 0.374, p < 0.001); the two earlier intervals were non-significant, and a stationarity test confirmed that the three are not statistically equivalent, Δχ²(2) = 11.16, p = 0.004. The pooled estimate, γ = 0.213, is accordingly reported as a descriptive summary of a heterogeneous set of paths rather than as a stable within-person effect, and the wave-specific estimates, the T3 → T4 path in particular, carry the evidence for H1. Within-person increases in AP were not detected as predictors of later PSU at any wave (pooled δ = -0.013, p = 0.863, a defensible single estimate since these three waves were statistically equivalent); a design-stage Monte Carlo check gave about 0.81 power for an effect of the hypothesized size, so this is a reasonably informative null: the AP → PSU pathway was not detected at a three-month lag in this sample, which is not the same as showing it absent. The two directions differed in estimated magnitude; an equality-constraint likelihood-ratio test within the RI-CLPM confirmed the asymmetry at the final interval, Δχ²(1) = 9.16, p = 0.002, although the γ side rests on a single interval, so the asymmetry is specific to the T3 → T4 window. The random-intercept correlation between PSU and AP remained significant in the full model adjusting for all six T1 covariates (r = 0.250, p < 0.001), indicating a substantial trait-level component. However, the pooled cross-lagged estimates did not hold their values once a common-method factor was added. That specification is too weakly identified to re-estimate the correlation at all, so shared-method inflation cannot be excluded for either. A traditional cross-lagged panel model without this trait/state decomposition showed markedly inflated stability and cross-lagged estimates by comparison. PSU met metric but not scalar longitudinal invariance, which qualifies the interpretation of within-person change on that construct. However, refitting the model on an item-reduced PSU composite left the focal estimate essentially unchanged (T3 → T4 β = 0.378). These findings indicate that the PSU-AP relationship, as observed here, is interval-specific rather than uniform, directionally asymmetric within the one interval in which a within-person effect was detected, and only partially dynamic; they are best read as hypotheses about how future intervention research might be sequenced and targeted rather than as direct guidance for practice.
SN - 1664-1078
ER -