Epidemiologic shifts predict spatial patterns of measles re-emergence in the United States
- 1Stanford University
Abstract
Globally, measles is re-emerging in countries that have previously achieved elimination, including the United States. As immunization rates decline, characterizing the dynamics and evolving spatial pattern of measles re-emergence is critical to inform the public health response. We analyze annual county-level measles cases and vaccine coverage data in the United States (US) from 2011-2025 and find a shift in measles epidemiology in recent years indicative of re-emergence. While outbreak risk is spatially concentrated, we find that outbreaks are increasingly spreading throughout the broader population and across counties, but targeted interventions are predicted to prevent re-emergence nationwide. During the first decade of this period (2011-2020), outbreaks were only weakly associated with county-level vaccine coverage and predominantly isolated to single counties; however, recently (2021-2025), vaccine coverage has become strongly associated with outbreak size and spread across neighboring counties has increased. These findings suggest that measles transmission is increasingly sustained across the broader population rather than only in socially clustered communities. We developed a spatial statistical model to predict outbreak risk and size in all US counties with validation over 2021-2025; the model predicted counties with [≥]10 cases with a sensitivity of 95% (range across 2021-2025: 75-100%) and specificity of 83% (64-98%). Mechanistic models based on county vaccine coverage alone had worse performance, particularly in predicting larger outbreaks. Using the spatial statistical model, we find that prioritizing interventions in the areas of greatest model-predicted risk (e.g., top decile of US counties) was more impactful than state-level interventions (e.g., top five states) or targeting based on low vaccine coverage alone. Achieving even modest (5 percentage point) increases in vaccine coverage in counties in the top decile of model-predicted risk reduced long-term measles risk nationwide by over 90%. Together, these findings demonstrate that predictive risk modeling to inform spatially targeted interventions can likely mitigate the re-emergence of vaccine-preventable diseases.
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BibTeX
@misc{kumar2026epidemiologic,
title = {{Epidemiologic shifts predict spatial patterns of measles re-emergence in the United States}},
author = {C. K. Kumar and L. A. Stoffel and J. L. Warren and S. Blumberg and R. Schechter and K. M. Bubar and M. Fattah and M. V. Kiang and Y. Maldonado and E. A. Mordecai and P. J. Hotez and M. Lipsitch and N. C. Lo},
howpublished = {medRxiv},
year = {2026},
month = oct,
doi = {10.64898/2026.10.14.26365590},
url = {https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.64898/2026.10.14.26365590v1},
note = {CC BY-NC-ND},
}
RIS
TY - UNPB
TI - Epidemiologic shifts predict spatial patterns of measles re-emergence in the United States
AU - C. K. Kumar
AU - L. A. Stoffel
AU - J. L. Warren
AU - S. Blumberg
AU - R. Schechter
AU - K. M. Bubar
AU - M. Fattah
AU - M. V. Kiang
AU - Y. Maldonado
AU - E. A. Mordecai
AU - P. J. Hotez
AU - M. Lipsitch
AU - N. C. Lo
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/10/14
PB - medRxiv
DO - 10.64898/2026.10.14.26365590
UR - https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.64898/2026.10.14.26365590v1
AB - Globally, measles is re-emerging in countries that have previously achieved elimination, including the United States. As immunization rates decline, characterizing the dynamics and evolving spatial pattern of measles re-emergence is critical to inform the public health response. We analyze annual county-level measles cases and vaccine coverage data in the United States (US) from 2011-2025 and find a shift in measles epidemiology in recent years indicative of re-emergence. While outbreak risk is spatially concentrated, we find that outbreaks are increasingly spreading throughout the broader population and across counties, but targeted interventions are predicted to prevent re-emergence nationwide. During the first decade of this period (2011-2020), outbreaks were only weakly associated with county-level vaccine coverage and predominantly isolated to single counties; however, recently (2021-2025), vaccine coverage has become strongly associated with outbreak size and spread across neighboring counties has increased. These findings suggest that measles transmission is increasingly sustained across the broader population rather than only in socially clustered communities. We developed a spatial statistical model to predict outbreak risk and size in all US counties with validation over 2021-2025; the model predicted counties with [≥]10 cases with a sensitivity of 95% (range across 2021-2025: 75-100%) and specificity of 83% (64-98%). Mechanistic models based on county vaccine coverage alone had worse performance, particularly in predicting larger outbreaks. Using the spatial statistical model, we find that prioritizing interventions in the areas of greatest model-predicted risk (e.g., top decile of US counties) was more impactful than state-level interventions (e.g., top five states) or targeting based on low vaccine coverage alone. Achieving even modest (5 percentage point) increases in vaccine coverage in counties in the top decile of model-predicted risk reduced long-term measles risk nationwide by over 90%. Together, these findings demonstrate that predictive risk modeling to inform spatially targeted interventions can likely mitigate the re-emergence of vaccine-preventable diseases.
ER -