Phenotype-dependent schooling behaviour across hierarchical levels in three-spined sticklebacks
- 1rvation Ecology group, Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG Groningen, Netherlands
Abstract
Schooling is a widespread behaviour among pelagic fish that reduces locomotion costs of migration and predation risk. It is characterised by coordinated movements, speed and orientation of group members. Although schooling can vary both between populations and among individuals of the same population, these levels of variation are seldom considered together. Here, we investigated whether schooling tendencies in three-spined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus) vary between populations and among individuals within-populations depending on their phenotype. We first compared the schooling behaviour of anadromous (migrants) and recently landlocked (residents) populations and tested whether individual sociability explained within-population variation in schooling. We then studied whether schooling behaviour is modulated when migrants and residents are in mixed groups. Migrant groups displayed better schooling performance than residents with higher alignment. Within migrant groups, less social individuals displayed more leadership, were better aligned, swam closer to others and fatigued less than more social fish. These patterns were absent in residents. When the two populations were mixed, overall schooling performance declined, particularly in migrants, with schools exhibiting reduced compaction and alignment, resembling resident groups. Thus, individuals did not modulate their schooling behaviour to the group social composition and phenotype-dependent schooling patterns were disrupted in migrants when mixed. These findings suggest that migration-related behaviours can disappear quickly post-isolation. They also highlight the importance of individual sociability in self-organisation and shaping collective behaviour, especially in populations that retain migratory behaviour. Considering behavioural variation across multiple hierarchical levels is thus key to understanding complex social systems.
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BibTeX
@misc{ramesh2026phenotypedependent,
title = {{Phenotype-dependent schooling behaviour across hierarchical levels in three-spined sticklebacks}},
author = {A. Ramesh and E. Stamhuis and M. Nicolaus},
howpublished = {bioRxiv},
year = {2026},
month = sep,
doi = {10.64898/2026.09.17.752332},
url = {https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.64898/2026.09.17.752332v1},
note = {CC BY-NC},
}
RIS
TY - UNPB
TI - Phenotype-dependent schooling behaviour across hierarchical levels in three-spined sticklebacks
AU - A. Ramesh
AU - E. Stamhuis
AU - M. Nicolaus
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/09/17
PB - bioRxiv
DO - 10.64898/2026.09.17.752332
UR - https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.64898/2026.09.17.752332v1
AB - Schooling is a widespread behaviour among pelagic fish that reduces locomotion costs of migration and predation risk. It is characterised by coordinated movements, speed and orientation of group members. Although schooling can vary both between populations and among individuals of the same population, these levels of variation are seldom considered together. Here, we investigated whether schooling tendencies in three-spined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus) vary between populations and among individuals within-populations depending on their phenotype. We first compared the schooling behaviour of anadromous (migrants) and recently landlocked (residents) populations and tested whether individual sociability explained within-population variation in schooling. We then studied whether schooling behaviour is modulated when migrants and residents are in mixed groups. Migrant groups displayed better schooling performance than residents with higher alignment. Within migrant groups, less social individuals displayed more leadership, were better aligned, swam closer to others and fatigued less than more social fish. These patterns were absent in residents. When the two populations were mixed, overall schooling performance declined, particularly in migrants, with schools exhibiting reduced compaction and alignment, resembling resident groups. Thus, individuals did not modulate their schooling behaviour to the group social composition and phenotype-dependent schooling patterns were disrupted in migrants when mixed. These findings suggest that migration-related behaviours can disappear quickly post-isolation. They also highlight the importance of individual sociability in self-organisation and shaping collective behaviour, especially in populations that retain migratory behaviour. Considering behavioural variation across multiple hierarchical levels is thus key to understanding complex social systems.
ER -