A robot-like learning companion for executive-function neurofeedback: acceptability, user experience, and evidence of within-session self-regulation in a pilot study
Abstract
Neurofeedback (NF) training is marked by substantial inter-individual variability in learning outcomes, and learning companions have been proposed to support motivation and engagement in such contexts. This pilot study examined whether a tangible, robot-like learning companion (Juno), could be integrated into a frontal-midline (FM) theta NF protocol targeting executive functions, and whether such a protocol was acceptable, usable, and associated with early signs of NF learning. Thirteen adults reporting executive-function difficulties in daily life completed three NF sessions with Juno, which delivered performance-contingent verbal and emotional feedback. Acceptability and user experience were assessed with self-report questionnaires, NF learning was characterised at both the inter- and intra-session levels, and executive functioning was measured before and after the protocol. Acceptability was favourable: perceived ease of use and visual aesthetics increased significantly, intention to use remained moderately positive, and overall satisfaction with Juno was high after experiencing a NF training with the robot-like learning companion. Personalisation and interaction frequency were identified as the main targets for improvement. Affect remained stable across sessions, indicating good tolerability. Participants showed reliable within-session upregulation of FM-theta from the third block onwards, replicated across sessions, whereas no reliable inter-session progression emerged, a pattern in line with existing FM-theta literature. No significant pre-post change was observed in self-reported executive functioning, consistent with the short three-session dose. Introducing this companion did not disrupt the emergence of FM-theta self-regulation. These findings support the feasibility of tangible NF companions and should be confirmed in a randomised controlled design including a companion-free condition.
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BibTeX
@misc{grevet2026robotlike,
title = {{A robot-like learning companion for executive-function neurofeedback: acceptability, user experience, and evidence of within-session self-regulation in a pilot study}},
author = {Elise Grevet and David Daniël Hettema and Jaroslav Krc and Stefanie Enriquez-Geppert},
howpublished = {PsyArXiv},
year = {2026},
month = sep,
doi = {10.31234/osf.io/6wcfd_v2},
url = {https://osf.io/preprints/psyarxiv/6wcfd_v2/},
note = {CC BY 4.0},
}
RIS
TY - UNPB
TI - A robot-like learning companion for executive-function neurofeedback: acceptability, user experience, and evidence of within-session self-regulation in a pilot study
AU - Elise Grevet
AU - David Daniël Hettema
AU - Jaroslav Krc
AU - Stefanie Enriquez-Geppert
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/09/08
PB - PsyArXiv
DO - 10.31234/osf.io/6wcfd_v2
UR - https://osf.io/preprints/psyarxiv/6wcfd_v2/
AB - Neurofeedback (NF) training is marked by substantial inter-individual variability in learning outcomes, and learning companions have been proposed to support motivation and engagement in such contexts. This pilot study examined whether a tangible, robot-like learning companion (Juno), could be integrated into a frontal-midline (FM) theta NF protocol targeting executive functions, and whether such a protocol was acceptable, usable, and associated with early signs of NF learning. Thirteen adults reporting executive-function difficulties in daily life completed three NF sessions with Juno, which delivered performance-contingent verbal and emotional feedback. Acceptability and user experience were assessed with self-report questionnaires, NF learning was characterised at both the inter- and intra-session levels, and executive functioning was measured before and after the protocol. Acceptability was favourable: perceived ease of use and visual aesthetics increased significantly, intention to use remained moderately positive, and overall satisfaction with Juno was high after experiencing a NF training with the robot-like learning companion. Personalisation and interaction frequency were identified as the main targets for improvement. Affect remained stable across sessions, indicating good tolerability. Participants showed reliable within-session upregulation of FM-theta from the third block onwards, replicated across sessions, whereas no reliable inter-session progression emerged, a pattern in line with existing FM-theta literature. No significant pre-post change was observed in self-reported executive functioning, consistent with the short three-session dose. Introducing this companion did not disrupt the emergence of FM-theta self-regulation. These findings support the feasibility of tangible NF companions and should be confirmed in a randomised controlled design including a companion-free condition.
ER -