Carbon Dots in Nanomedicine: Advanced Fabrication, Biomedical Applications, and Future Clinical Perspectives
4 affiliations
- 1College of Korean Medicine, Gachon University, 1342 Seongnamdaero, Seongnam 13120, Republic of Korea
- 2Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, The University of Faisalabad (TUF), Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan
- 3College of Literature, Science, and the Arts, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- 4College of Pharmacy, Sahmyook University, Seoul 01795, Republic of Korea
Abstract
Carbon dots (CDs), including carbon quantum dots (CQDs), are ultra-small carbon-based nanomaterials, typically below 10 nm, with tunable photoluminescence, high aqueous dispersibility, favorable biocompatibility, low toxicity, and abundant surface functional groups. These properties make CDs promising multifunctional platforms for nanomedicine, particularly in bioimaging, biosensing, targeted drug/gene delivery, photodynamic therapy (PDT), photothermal therapy (PTT), antimicrobial treatment, and theranostic applications. This review critically examines recent advances in CD fabrication, including top-down, bottom-up, green biomass-derived, microwave-assisted, hydrothermal, and emerging hybrid strategies, with emphasis on how precursor selection, heteroatom doping, surface passivation, and polymer/ligand functionalization regulate optical performance, biological interaction, and therapeutic efficiency. The review discusses structural classification, including CQDs, graphene quantum dots (GQDs), carbon nanodots, and carbonized polymer dots (CPDs), together with major characterization approaches such as ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy, Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Raman spectroscopy, and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM). Particular attention is given to red/near-infrared (NIR) emission, renal clearance, drug-loading behavior, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, toxicity mechanisms, biodistribution, and long-term biosafety. This review also highlights key translational barriers, including batch-to-batch variability, limited standardization, scalable manufacturing, regulatory uncertainty, and incomplete pharmacokinetic evaluation. It considers artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) as emerging tools for reproducible CD design. CDs represent versatile and clinically promising nanoplatforms, but their translation requires standardized synthesis, rigorous safety assessment, and application-specific regulatory validation.
Related
- Emerging Polysaccharide-Based Biomaterials in 3D Bioprinting: Materials, Biomedical Applications, and Future Perspectives
- Design and fabrication of graphene oxide-based nanocomposites with tuneable morphological properties for advanced supercapacitor applications
- Critical processing parameters and advanced characterization of electrospun nanofiber scaffolds for drug delivery and biomedical applications
- Chitosan-Based Technologies in the Food Industry: Functional Properties, Advanced Applications, and Future Perspectives
- Review: Silicon oxycarbide based materials for biomedical applications
BibTeX
@article{khan2026carbon,
title = {{Carbon Dots in Nanomedicine: Advanced Fabrication, Biomedical Applications, and Future Clinical Perspectives}},
author = {Muhammad Sohail Khan and Imran Zafar and Dayeon Ham and Ki Sung Kang and Il-Ho Park},
journal = {Pharmaceutics},
year = {2026},
month = may,
doi = {10.3390/pharmaceutics18050632},
url = {https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics18050632},
note = {CC BY},
}
RIS
TY - JOUR
TI - Carbon Dots in Nanomedicine: Advanced Fabrication, Biomedical Applications, and Future Clinical Perspectives
AU - Muhammad Sohail Khan
AU - Imran Zafar
AU - Dayeon Ham
AU - Ki Sung Kang
AU - Il-Ho Park
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/05/21
JO - Pharmaceutics
DO - 10.3390/pharmaceutics18050632
UR - https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics18050632
AB - Carbon dots (CDs), including carbon quantum dots (CQDs), are ultra-small carbon-based nanomaterials, typically below 10 nm, with tunable photoluminescence, high aqueous dispersibility, favorable biocompatibility, low toxicity, and abundant surface functional groups. These properties make CDs promising multifunctional platforms for nanomedicine, particularly in bioimaging, biosensing, targeted drug/gene delivery, photodynamic therapy (PDT), photothermal therapy (PTT), antimicrobial treatment, and theranostic applications. This review critically examines recent advances in CD fabrication, including top-down, bottom-up, green biomass-derived, microwave-assisted, hydrothermal, and emerging hybrid strategies, with emphasis on how precursor selection, heteroatom doping, surface passivation, and polymer/ligand functionalization regulate optical performance, biological interaction, and therapeutic efficiency. The review discusses structural classification, including CQDs, graphene quantum dots (GQDs), carbon nanodots, and carbonized polymer dots (CPDs), together with major characterization approaches such as ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy, Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Raman spectroscopy, and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM). Particular attention is given to red/near-infrared (NIR) emission, renal clearance, drug-loading behavior, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, toxicity mechanisms, biodistribution, and long-term biosafety. This review also highlights key translational barriers, including batch-to-batch variability, limited standardization, scalable manufacturing, regulatory uncertainty, and incomplete pharmacokinetic evaluation. It considers artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) as emerging tools for reproducible CD design. CDs represent versatile and clinically promising nanoplatforms, but their translation requires standardized synthesis, rigorous safety assessment, and application-specific regulatory validation.
SN - 1999-4923
ER -