What Do City Codes Say About Climate Risk?
Abstract
Climate change is intensifying natural hazards, and preparing cities for them falls primarily to local governments. Yet what municipal codes say about hazards, and whether their requirements match each city's risk profile, has not been measured. I analyze 3.6 million sentences from 204 U.S. cities' municipal codes and compare each city's hazard text to its actual risk from FEMA's National Risk Index. I document four patterns. First, a small share of code text consists of provisions relevant for natural hazards (1.5%), and codes in high-risk cities contain marginally more. Second, hazard coverage is highly concentrated on flooding (61% of hazard-relevant text), even though flooding accounts for only 9% of the average city's risk. Third, city codes emphasize emergency response over prevention. Emergency management is the largest regulatory category, and land use is the smallest. Fourth, codes track the types of risks relevant to each location, but only loosely. The median city would need to reallocate 70% of its regulatory text to match its risk profile. The results suggest that U.S. city codes do not include regulation for most of the hazards cities face.
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BibTeX
@misc{salazarmiranda2026what,
title = {{What Do City Codes Say About Climate Risk?}},
author = {Arianna Salazar-Miranda},
howpublished = {arXiv},
year = {2026},
month = sep,
doi = {10.48550/arxiv.2609.36191},
eprint = {2609.36191},
archivePrefix = {arXiv},
url = {https://arxiv.org/abs/2609.36191},
note = {CC BY 4.0},
}
RIS
TY - UNPB
TI - What Do City Codes Say About Climate Risk?
AU - Arianna Salazar-Miranda
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/09/28
PB - arXiv
DO - 10.48550/arxiv.2609.36191
UR - https://arxiv.org/abs/2609.36191
AB - Climate change is intensifying natural hazards, and preparing cities for them falls primarily to local governments. Yet what municipal codes say about hazards, and whether their requirements match each city's risk profile, has not been measured. I analyze 3.6 million sentences from 204 U.S. cities' municipal codes and compare each city's hazard text to its actual risk from FEMA's National Risk Index. I document four patterns. First, a small share of code text consists of provisions relevant for natural hazards (1.5%), and codes in high-risk cities contain marginally more. Second, hazard coverage is highly concentrated on flooding (61% of hazard-relevant text), even though flooding accounts for only 9% of the average city's risk. Third, city codes emphasize emergency response over prevention. Emergency management is the largest regulatory category, and land use is the smallest. Fourth, codes track the types of risks relevant to each location, but only loosely. The median city would need to reallocate 70% of its regulatory text to match its risk profile. The results suggest that U.S. city codes do not include regulation for most of the hazards cities face.
ER -