Peer-reviewedCC BYEnvironmental Geochemistry and Health
Global groundwater contamination by geogenic fluoride
37 affiliations
- 1Department of Civil Engineering Science, Faculty of Engineering & the Built Environment, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, Kingsway Campus, Johannesburg, South Africa. [email protected]
- 2School of Geosciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH8 9XP, Scotland
- 3Department of Water Resources and Ecosystems, IHE Delft Institute for Water Education, Westvest 7, 2611 AX, Delft, The Netherlands
- 4School of Earth, Environment, and Sustainability, Missouri State University, Springfield, USA
- 5Department of Biosystems Engineering, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, USA
- 6Centre of Excellence in Environmental Science and Sustainability, Sir Padampat Singhania University, Udaipur, 313601, Rajasthan, India
- 7Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, P.O. Box 524, Johannesburg, 2006, South Africa
- 8Mining Engineering, Faculty of Integrated and Advanced Technology, Sir Padampat Singhania University, Udaipur, 313601, Rajasthan, India
- 9Department of Civil Engineering, University of South Africa, [Florida Science Campus], Cnr Christian de Wet Road and Pioneer Avenue, Johannesburg, South Africa
- 10Department of Geology, Institute of Ecology and Earth Sciences, University of Tartu, Ravila 14a, 50411, Tartu, Estonia
- 11Department of Geology, Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Uli, Nigeria
- 12Research Management Office (RMO), Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu University, Anambra, Nigeria
- 13Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Science and Technology of Mazandaran, Behshahr, Iran
- 14School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
- 15Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
- 16School of Water and Environment, Chang'an University, No. 126 Yanta Road, Xi'an, 710054, Shaanxi, China
- 17Disaster Science and management, Begum Rokeya University, Rangpur, 5400, Bangladesh
- 18Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, South Korea
- 19Geography Department, Geosciences Institute, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
- 20Instituto de Geología de Costas y del Cuaternario (U.N. Mar del Plata-CIC BA), Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras (CONICET-U.N. Mar del Plata), Mar del Plata, Argentina
- 21Department of the International Water Resources, Izmir Institute of Technology, Izmir, Türkiye
- 22Department of Environmental Sciences, Balochistan University of Information Technology Engineering and Management Sciences (BUITEMS), Quetta, Pakistan
- 23Department of Geology, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran
- 24Department of Earth & Environmental Sciences, Sana'a University, Sana'a, Yemen
- 25DAFWAT Research Group, Department of Water Resources Engineering, College of Engineering and Technology, University of Dar Es Salaam, Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania
- 26Geospatial Data Sciences and Technology (Geomatics) Section, Department of Transportation and Geotechnical Engineering, College of Engineering and Technology, University of Dar Es Salaam, Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania
- 27Water and Environmental Management Research Group, Faculty of Science, Engineering and Agriculture, University of Venda, Limpopo Province, Thohoyandou, 0950, South Africa
- 28Department of Water and Environmental Regulation, Perth, WA, Australia
- 29Polish Geological Institute-National Research Institute, Warsaw, Poland
- 30Centro de Investigaciones de Materiales Avanzados, Dgo.34147, Durango, México
- 31Institute of Geography and Geoecology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
- 32Centre for Ecology Environment and Sustainable Development, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Guwahati, Assam, India
- 33Environmental Hydro Geochemistry Lab, Department of Environmental Sciences, Quaid-I-Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan
- 34Department of Chemical Engineering, Ege University, Izmir, Türkiye
- 35Department of Chemical Engineering, Izmir Institute of Technology, Izmir, Türkiye
- 36Área de Toxicología, Universidad de La Laguna, 38071, La Laguna, Tenerife, Islas Canarias, Spain
- 37KTH-International Groundwater Arsenic Research Group, Department of Sustainable Development, Environmental Science and Engineering, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Teknikringen 10B, 114 28, Stockholm, Sweden
Abstract
Fluoride (F¯) is a global geogenic contaminant in groundwater, occurring at elevated concentrations across almost every continent. While optimal fluoride intake benefits dental health, levels exceeding the WHO safe limit (1.5 mg L −1 ) can cause dental fluorosis and even severe skeletal fluorosis, with drinking water being the primary exposure pathway. Understanding the global occurrence and geochemistry of fluoride in groundwater is essential for minimizing associated health risks. Therefore, this study reviews the incidence, distribution, mobilization mechanisms of fluoride in groundwater, and identifies the key knowledge gaps related to fluoride contamination worldwide. The study presents a large-scale synthesis of contaminated aquifers, cost-effective defluoridation methods, socio-economic challenges, and strategies for safe drinking water supply. This was done by adopting the PRISMA 2020 systematic review framework with review period between 1953 and 2025. Findings confirm that fluoride contamination is prevalent in Asia, Africa, the Middle East, Europe, and the Americas, driven mainly by fluorine-bearing minerals in aquifers. Key factors intensifying the contamination includes hydrogeochemical conditions such as high pH, Na–HCO 3 water types, and low calcium (Ca 2+ ) concentrations. Identified hotspot are the East African Rift Valley, Indo-Gangetic plains, northern China, and volcanic or geothermal regions in Mexico and Türkiye, with localized anomalies observed in Estonia, Poland, and Australia. Anthropogenic inputs contribute in some localized areas, although their impact is minimal. The fluoride levels are particularly high in arid and semi-arid regions, where evaporation and prolonged water–rock interaction accelerate fluoride mobilization. Despite decades of research, monitoring gaps persist, and mitigation remains challenging, especially for rural communities who are entirely dependent on untreated groundwater. This study recommends prioritizing efforts on scalable, cost-effective solutions to provide fluoride-safe water, particularly in areas where populations are largely vulnerable.
Related
- Fluoride enrichment, hydrogeochemical processes, and health risks from groundwater ingestion in the Zabzugu District, Ghana
- Source tracing techniques for groundwater contamination in land-sea interaction zone: A critical review
- Heavy metal contamination in groundwater: sources and sustainable remediation approaches: a review.
- Spatial distribution, origins, and driving mechanisms of groundwater nitrate contamination in a rural-agricultural-mining catchment: Insight from PMF, machine learning and multi-isotopic techniques
- The GRACE satellite mission and transformation of global groundwater science
BibTeX
@article{ali2026global,
title = {{Global groundwater contamination by geogenic fluoride}},
author = {Shakir Ali and Pratibha Mishra and K. Brindha and Melida Gutiérrez and Rakesh Kumar and Emmanuel Daanoba Sunkari and Patrick Kirita Gevera and Enn Karro and Johnbosco C. Egbueri and Reza Dehbandi and Rohana Chandrajith and Peiyue Li and Abu Reza Md. Towfiqul Islam and Seong‐Taek Yun and Hullysses Sabino and MARTÍNEZ DANIEL EMILIO and Alper Baba and Taimoor Shah Durrani and Vahab Amiri and Adnan Aqeel and Julian Ijumulana and Joshua Nosa Edokpayi and David Schäfer and Lidia Razowska-Jaworek and María Teresa Alarcón-Herrera and Odsuren Batdelger and Ritusmita Goswami and A Farooqi and Alcaraz Emiliano Fabio and Yaşar Kemal Recepoğlu and Soraya Paz Montelongo and Prosun Bhattacharya},
journal = {Environmental Geochemistry and Health},
year = {2026},
month = jun,
doi = {10.1007/s10653-026-03187-8},
url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-026-03187-8},
note = {CC BY},
}
RIS
TY - JOUR
TI - Global groundwater contamination by geogenic fluoride
AU - Shakir Ali
AU - Pratibha Mishra
AU - K. Brindha
AU - Melida Gutiérrez
AU - Rakesh Kumar
AU - Emmanuel Daanoba Sunkari
AU - Patrick Kirita Gevera
AU - Enn Karro
AU - Johnbosco C. Egbueri
AU - Reza Dehbandi
AU - Rohana Chandrajith
AU - Peiyue Li
AU - Abu Reza Md. Towfiqul Islam
AU - Seong‐Taek Yun
AU - Hullysses Sabino
AU - MARTÍNEZ DANIEL EMILIO
AU - Alper Baba
AU - Taimoor Shah Durrani
AU - Vahab Amiri
AU - Adnan Aqeel
AU - Julian Ijumulana
AU - Joshua Nosa Edokpayi
AU - David Schäfer
AU - Lidia Razowska-Jaworek
AU - María Teresa Alarcón-Herrera
AU - Odsuren Batdelger
AU - Ritusmita Goswami
AU - A Farooqi
AU - Alcaraz Emiliano Fabio
AU - Yaşar Kemal Recepoğlu
AU - Soraya Paz Montelongo
AU - Prosun Bhattacharya
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/06/01
JO - Environmental Geochemistry and Health
DO - 10.1007/s10653-026-03187-8
UR - https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-026-03187-8
AB - Fluoride (F¯) is a global geogenic contaminant in groundwater, occurring at elevated concentrations across almost every continent. While optimal fluoride intake benefits dental health, levels exceeding the WHO safe limit (1.5 mg L −1 ) can cause dental fluorosis and even severe skeletal fluorosis, with drinking water being the primary exposure pathway. Understanding the global occurrence and geochemistry of fluoride in groundwater is essential for minimizing associated health risks. Therefore, this study reviews the incidence, distribution, mobilization mechanisms of fluoride in groundwater, and identifies the key knowledge gaps related to fluoride contamination worldwide. The study presents a large-scale synthesis of contaminated aquifers, cost-effective defluoridation methods, socio-economic challenges, and strategies for safe drinking water supply. This was done by adopting the PRISMA 2020 systematic review framework with review period between 1953 and 2025. Findings confirm that fluoride contamination is prevalent in Asia, Africa, the Middle East, Europe, and the Americas, driven mainly by fluorine-bearing minerals in aquifers. Key factors intensifying the contamination includes hydrogeochemical conditions such as high pH, Na–HCO 3 water types, and low calcium (Ca 2+ ) concentrations. Identified hotspot are the East African Rift Valley, Indo-Gangetic plains, northern China, and volcanic or geothermal regions in Mexico and Türkiye, with localized anomalies observed in Estonia, Poland, and Australia. Anthropogenic inputs contribute in some localized areas, although their impact is minimal. The fluoride levels are particularly high in arid and semi-arid regions, where evaporation and prolonged water–rock interaction accelerate fluoride mobilization. Despite decades of research, monitoring gaps persist, and mitigation remains challenging, especially for rural communities who are entirely dependent on untreated groundwater. This study recommends prioritizing efforts on scalable, cost-effective solutions to provide fluoride-safe water, particularly in areas where populations are largely vulnerable.
SN - 0269-4042
SN - 1573-2983
ER -