Comparative serum cytokine and chemokine profiles across tuberculosis, latent TB, HIV, and COVID-19 infections in Namibian adults
5 affiliations
- 1Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Biotechnology, University of Namibia , ,
- 2Host Determinants in Lung Infections, Research Center Borstel, Leibniz Lung Center , ,
- 3Department of Human, Biological & Translational Medical Sciences, University of Namibia , ,
- 4Health Poverty Action , ,
- 5Victus Global Botswana Organisation , ,
Abstract
Background: The devastating pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) highlighted the importance of early detection and global collaboration in combating infectious diseases. Namibia is one of the countries that bears a high burden of tuberculosis (TB) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. The overlap of these diseases underscores the need to better understand host immune responses, which play a critical role in disease pathogenesis and may differ across infections. This study aimed to profile selected cytokines and chemokines among Namibian individuals with TB, latent TB infection (LTBI), COVID-19, and HIV infection.
Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted between August 2022 and May 2023 among adults (≥18 years) recruited from two clinics in Namibia. 222 participants were categorized into multiple clinical groups, including mono- and co-infections of COVID-19, active TB, LTBI, HIV, and control participants. Serum concentrations of 23 cytokines and chemokines were measured using the LEGENDPlex™ multiplex immunoassay. Differences, discriminations and correlations in biomarker levels between groups were analysed using non-parametric statistical tests with adjustment for multiple comparisons. Statistical significance was defined as an adjusted p < 0.05.
Results: MCP-1 demonstrated consistent upregulation across active TB, COVID-19, COVID-19/LTBI, and HIV/LTBI groups. In contrast, free active transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1) was significantly downregulated in both TB and LTBI participants. Individuals with TB exhibited elevated MCP-1 and macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) levels compared to those with LTBI, with both analytes demonstrating discriminatory performance between TB and LTBI. Multiple moderate and weak positive correlations among inflammatory markers were observed in individuals with LTBI and HIV/LTBI but were absent in active TB and COVID-19/LTBI participants.
Conclusions: Our findings demonstrate distinct serum cytokines and chemokines across TB, LTBI, HIV, and COVID-19 in a Namibian cohort. MCP-1 emerged as a consistent marker associated with inflammation. MIF was detected as a potential differentiating marker for TB and LTBI. Larger studies are needed to evaluate the diagnostic potential of these biomarkers and their incorporation into clinical diagnostic algorithms. The results also suggest a possible role for LTBI-associated immune activation in HIV co-infection, which warrants further investigation.
Related
- Chemokine and Cytokine Receptor Signatures Associated with Pulmonary Endothelial-Conditioned Melanoma Invasion
- Stromal Remodeling of the Cytokine Secretome Reveals a Chemokine Core Across Breast Cancer and Glioma 3D Cell Culture Models.
- Influence of Occupational Exposures on Cytokine Profiles in Patients with Membranous Nephropathy
- Cytokine Profiles in Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia: Associations with Lesion Severity and Exploratory Treatment Response
- Peripheral Immune Cell Profiles and Circulating Cytokine Signals in Vietnamese Children Hospitalized with Acute Asthma Exacerbations: A Cross-Sectional Study
BibTeX
@article{katali2026comparative,
title = {{Comparative serum cytokine and chemokine profiles across tuberculosis, latent TB, HIV, and COVID-19 infections in Namibian adults}},
author = {Ottilie K. H. Katali and David Hertz and Mareli Claassens and Petrina Kapewangolo and Tadesse K. Woldetsadik and Chawangwa Modongo and Stefan Niemann and Bianca E. Schneider and Emmanuel Nepolo},
journal = {Frontiers in immunology},
year = {2026},
month = oct,
doi = {10.3389/fimmu.2026.1954262},
url = {https://europepmc.org/article/PMC/PMC13672220},
note = {CC BY},
}
RIS
TY - JOUR
TI - Comparative serum cytokine and chemokine profiles across tuberculosis, latent TB, HIV, and COVID-19 infections in Namibian adults
AU - Ottilie K. H. Katali
AU - David Hertz
AU - Mareli Claassens
AU - Petrina Kapewangolo
AU - Tadesse K. Woldetsadik
AU - Chawangwa Modongo
AU - Stefan Niemann
AU - Bianca E. Schneider
AU - Emmanuel Nepolo
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/10/02
JO - Frontiers in immunology
DO - 10.3389/fimmu.2026.1954262
UR - https://europepmc.org/article/PMC/PMC13672220
AB - Background: The devastating pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) highlighted the importance of early detection and global collaboration in combating infectious diseases. Namibia is one of the countries that bears a high burden of tuberculosis (TB) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. The overlap of these diseases underscores the need to better understand host immune responses, which play a critical role in disease pathogenesis and may differ across infections. This study aimed to profile selected cytokines and chemokines among Namibian individuals with TB, latent TB infection (LTBI), COVID-19, and HIV infection. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted between August 2022 and May 2023 among adults (≥18 years) recruited from two clinics in Namibia. 222 participants were categorized into multiple clinical groups, including mono- and co-infections of COVID-19, active TB, LTBI, HIV, and control participants. Serum concentrations of 23 cytokines and chemokines were measured using the LEGENDPlex™ multiplex immunoassay. Differences, discriminations and correlations in biomarker levels between groups were analysed using non-parametric statistical tests with adjustment for multiple comparisons. Statistical significance was defined as an adjusted p < 0.05. Results: MCP-1 demonstrated consistent upregulation across active TB, COVID-19, COVID-19/LTBI, and HIV/LTBI groups. In contrast, free active transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1) was significantly downregulated in both TB and LTBI participants. Individuals with TB exhibited elevated MCP-1 and macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) levels compared to those with LTBI, with both analytes demonstrating discriminatory performance between TB and LTBI. Multiple moderate and weak positive correlations among inflammatory markers were observed in individuals with LTBI and HIV/LTBI but were absent in active TB and COVID-19/LTBI participants. Conclusions: Our findings demonstrate distinct serum cytokines and chemokines across TB, LTBI, HIV, and COVID-19 in a Namibian cohort. MCP-1 emerged as a consistent marker associated with inflammation. MIF was detected as a potential differentiating marker for TB and LTBI. Larger studies are needed to evaluate the diagnostic potential of these biomarkers and their incorporation into clinical diagnostic algorithms. The results also suggest a possible role for LTBI-associated immune activation in HIV co-infection, which warrants further investigation.
SN - 1664-3224
ER -