Plasma-Assisted Trimetallic Nanoparticles and Nanoalloys: A Review of Synthesis Routes, a Reaction–Transport Framework, and Evidence Standards with an Au–Ag–Pd Case Study
5 affiliations
- 1Department of Physics, Qilu Institute of Technology, Jinan 250200, China
- 2Plasma Physics Laboratory, Department of Physics, COMSATS University Islamabad, Islamabad 45550, Pakistan
- 3Department of Computer Engineering, Biruni University, Istanbul 34010, Turkey
- 4Mathematics Research Center, Near East University, 99138 Nicosia, Cyprus
- 5Department of Management Information Systems, College of Business and Economics, Qassim University, Buraydah 51452, Saudi Arabia
Abstract
Trimetallic nanoalloys combine three metals within a nanoscale object and thereby offer a larger compositional, structural, and electronic design space than mono- or bimetallic particles. Their performance depends less on the nominal three-metal label than on atomic distribution, ordering, surface segregation, oxidation state, particle size, support interaction, and the dynamic structure under reaction conditions. This review evaluates trimetallic nanoparticles produced by chemical co-reduction, sequential and seed-mediated growth, galvanic replacement, photochemical and radiolytic routes, microwave and sonochemical synthesis, biological reduction, laser ablation and deposition, gas-phase sputtering, and plasma-assisted processing. Particular emphasis is placed on plasma–liquid interactions as a rapid, reagent-lean route for generating solvated electrons, hydrogen radicals, peroxide, ultraviolet radiation, shock waves, and transient interfacial fields. Direct evidence establishes plasma formation of several mono-, bi-, and multimetallic nanostructures, while atomic-scale proof of fully alloyed trimetallic products remains less common. The review therefore distinguishes demonstrated mechanisms from transferable process hypotheses. It presents a reaction–transport framework, including electron-kinetic parameters, a Damköhler-number treatment of the reaction/transport balance, and a reduction-potential analysis of the three precursor couples, for controlling asynchronous precursor reduction, nucleation, alloying, and ligand-lean stabilization; defines the characterization required to prove a trimetallic nanoalloy; compares catalytic, electrocatalytic, optical, sensing, antimicrobial, biomedical, and environmental applications; and proposes measurable criteria for scale-up, safety, energy efficiency, and circular use of critical metals. Au–Ag–Pd is reserved for the final future-perspectives case study, where the conflicting reduction and oxidation chemistry of its three precursors is used to define decisive experiments for the next generation of plasma–liquid synthesis.
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BibTeX
@article{wali2026plasmaassisted,
title = {{Plasma-Assisted Trimetallic Nanoparticles and Nanoalloys: A Review of Synthesis Routes, a Reaction–Transport Framework, and Evidence Standards with an Au–Ag–Pd Case Study}},
author = {Niaz Wali and Najeeb Ur Rehman and Akif Naqeeb Qadri and Fei Gao and Yakup Yildirim and Taha Radwan},
journal = {Catalysts},
year = {2026},
month = oct,
doi = {10.3390/catal16100918},
url = {https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4344/16/10/918},
note = {CC BY 4.0},
}
RIS
TY - JOUR
TI - Plasma-Assisted Trimetallic Nanoparticles and Nanoalloys: A Review of Synthesis Routes, a Reaction–Transport Framework, and Evidence Standards with an Au–Ag–Pd Case Study
AU - Niaz Wali
AU - Najeeb Ur Rehman
AU - Akif Naqeeb Qadri
AU - Fei Gao
AU - Yakup Yildirim
AU - Taha Radwan
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/10/17
JO - Catalysts
DO - 10.3390/catal16100918
UR - https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4344/16/10/918
AB - Trimetallic nanoalloys combine three metals within a nanoscale object and thereby offer a larger compositional, structural, and electronic design space than mono- or bimetallic particles. Their performance depends less on the nominal three-metal label than on atomic distribution, ordering, surface segregation, oxidation state, particle size, support interaction, and the dynamic structure under reaction conditions. This review evaluates trimetallic nanoparticles produced by chemical co-reduction, sequential and seed-mediated growth, galvanic replacement, photochemical and radiolytic routes, microwave and sonochemical synthesis, biological reduction, laser ablation and deposition, gas-phase sputtering, and plasma-assisted processing. Particular emphasis is placed on plasma–liquid interactions as a rapid, reagent-lean route for generating solvated electrons, hydrogen radicals, peroxide, ultraviolet radiation, shock waves, and transient interfacial fields. Direct evidence establishes plasma formation of several mono-, bi-, and multimetallic nanostructures, while atomic-scale proof of fully alloyed trimetallic products remains less common. The review therefore distinguishes demonstrated mechanisms from transferable process hypotheses. It presents a reaction–transport framework, including electron-kinetic parameters, a Damköhler-number treatment of the reaction/transport balance, and a reduction-potential analysis of the three precursor couples, for controlling asynchronous precursor reduction, nucleation, alloying, and ligand-lean stabilization; defines the characterization required to prove a trimetallic nanoalloy; compares catalytic, electrocatalytic, optical, sensing, antimicrobial, biomedical, and environmental applications; and proposes measurable criteria for scale-up, safety, energy efficiency, and circular use of critical metals. Au–Ag–Pd is reserved for the final future-perspectives case study, where the conflicting reduction and oxidation chemistry of its three precursors is used to define decisive experiments for the next generation of plasma–liquid synthesis.
SN - 2073-4344
ER -