Parasite transmission risk at the urban human–dog–macaque interface
5 affiliations
- 1Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal
- 2School of Animal, Rural and Environmental Sciences, Nottingham Trent University, Southwell, UK
- 3School of Life Sciences, Huxley Building, Keele University, Newcastle-under-Lyme, UK
- 4International Centre for Biodiversity and Primate Conservation, Dali University, Dali, China
- 5School of Psychology, Sport Science and Wellbeing, College of Health and Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, UK
Abstract
Urbanization and tourism are intensifying human–animal interactions, yet their implications for cross-species parasite transmission remain poorly understood. This study investigates behavioural and ecological mechanisms underlying parasite transmission dynamics across interconnected human, dog and macaque populations sharing the same urban and touristic environment at Swayambhunath Temple, Kathmandu. We assessed parasite prevalence, diversity and infection intensity, combining parasitological analyses, participant questionnaire and behavioural observations to evaluate how anthropogenic factors and host behaviours influence parasitism and potential cross-species transmission. Humans displayed practices that may increase transmission risk, including close animal interactions, food provisioning and limited hygiene measures. Parasite prevalence was highest in macaques and dogs compared to humans, with macaques exhibiting the highest parasite diversity. Several parasites occurred in more than 1 species; notably, Entamoeba spp. was detected across all 3 species, indicating shared exposure pathways and zoonotic potential. In dogs, neither social nor anthropogenic variables predicted parasite metrics, but parasite diversity was linked to self-scratching, an indicator of anxiety, suggesting environmental pathway as a key drive of parasite transmission. In macaques, parasite diversity was shaped by interactions between dominance rank, provisioning and grooming, highlighting the interplay between social dynamics and human influence. Overall, these findings show that urban and touristic environments not only facilitate direct pathogen exposure but also indirectly shape parasite infection risk through behavioural and social mechanisms. Integrating behavioural ecology with urban disease ecology is essential for understanding and managing zoonotic risks in densely shared human–domestic animal–wildlife systems, with important implications for public and animal health and urban biodiversity management.
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BibTeX
@article{k2026parasite,
title = {{Parasite transmission risk at the urban human–dog–macaque interface}},
author = {Anisha K C and Rosary Karki and Stefano S. K. Kaburu and Sabina Luitel and Kishor Pandey and Jenny Claire Dunn and Laxman Khanal and Laëtitia Maréchal},
journal = {Parasitology},
year = {2026},
month = jun,
doi = {10.1017/s0031182026102339},
url = {https://doi.org/10.1017/s0031182026102339},
note = {CC BY 4.0},
}
RIS
TY - JOUR
TI - Parasite transmission risk at the urban human–dog–macaque interface
AU - Anisha K C
AU - Rosary Karki
AU - Stefano S. K. Kaburu
AU - Sabina Luitel
AU - Kishor Pandey
AU - Jenny Claire Dunn
AU - Laxman Khanal
AU - Laëtitia Maréchal
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/06/24
JO - Parasitology
DO - 10.1017/s0031182026102339
UR - https://doi.org/10.1017/s0031182026102339
AB - Urbanization and tourism are intensifying human–animal interactions, yet their implications for cross-species parasite transmission remain poorly understood. This study investigates behavioural and ecological mechanisms underlying parasite transmission dynamics across interconnected human, dog and macaque populations sharing the same urban and touristic environment at Swayambhunath Temple, Kathmandu. We assessed parasite prevalence, diversity and infection intensity, combining parasitological analyses, participant questionnaire and behavioural observations to evaluate how anthropogenic factors and host behaviours influence parasitism and potential cross-species transmission. Humans displayed practices that may increase transmission risk, including close animal interactions, food provisioning and limited hygiene measures. Parasite prevalence was highest in macaques and dogs compared to humans, with macaques exhibiting the highest parasite diversity. Several parasites occurred in more than 1 species; notably, Entamoeba spp. was detected across all 3 species, indicating shared exposure pathways and zoonotic potential. In dogs, neither social nor anthropogenic variables predicted parasite metrics, but parasite diversity was linked to self-scratching, an indicator of anxiety, suggesting environmental pathway as a key drive of parasite transmission. In macaques, parasite diversity was shaped by interactions between dominance rank, provisioning and grooming, highlighting the interplay between social dynamics and human influence. Overall, these findings show that urban and touristic environments not only facilitate direct pathogen exposure but also indirectly shape parasite infection risk through behavioural and social mechanisms. Integrating behavioural ecology with urban disease ecology is essential for understanding and managing zoonotic risks in densely shared human–domestic animal–wildlife systems, with important implications for public and animal health and urban biodiversity management.
SN - 0031-1820
SN - 1469-8161
ER -