Carbon dot/TiO₂ nanocomposites for photocatalytic antibiotic degradation: interfacial engineering, degradation mechanisms, and environmental remediation.
9 affiliations
- 1Department of Chemistry, College of Science, University of Sulaimani Qlyasan Street Sulaymaniyah 46001 Kurdistan Regional Government Iraq [email protected].
- 2Department of Medical Laboratory Analysis, College of Health Sciences, Cihan University Sulaimaniya Sulaymaniyah City Kurdistan Iraq.
- 3Department of Biology, College of Science, University of Sulaimani Qlyasan Street Sulaymaniyah 46001 Kurdistan Regional Government Iraq.
- 4Department of Chemistry, College of Education, University of Sulaimani Old Campus Sulaymaniyah 46001 Kurdistan Regional Government Iraq.
- 5Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Sulaimani Sulaymaniyah Kurdistan Regional Government 46001 Iraq.
- 6Medical Analysis Department, Faculty of Applied Science, Tishk International University Erbil Kurdistan Region 44001 Iraq.
- 7Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Majmaah University Majmaah 11952 Saudi Arabia.
- 8Department of Physics, College of Education, University of Sulaimani, Kurdistan Regional Government Old Campus Sulaymaniyah 46001 Iraq.
- 9Turning Trash to Treasure Laboratory (TTTL), Research and Development Center, University of Sulaimani Qlyasan Street Sulaymaniyah Kurdistan Regional Government 46001 Iraq.
Abstract
The widespread presence of antibiotic residues in aquatic environments contributes to ecological toxicity and accelerates antimicrobial resistance (AMR), highlighting the need for efficient and sustainable remediation technologies. Among advanced oxidation processes, TiO2-based photocatalysis has attracted considerable attention because of its chemical stability, low toxicity, and strong oxidative capability. However, the practical application of TiO2 is limited by poor visible-light absorption and rapid electron-hole recombination. Carbon dots (CDs) have emerged as highly promising interfacial modifiers owing to their tunable electronic structure, visible-light responsiveness, and efficient charge-transfer capability, enabling substantial enhancement of TiO2 photocatalytic performance. This review critically examines recent advances in CDs/TiO2 nanocomposites for photocatalytic antibiotic degradation, with particular emphasis on how heterointerface engineering governs charge-carrier dynamics, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and degradation selectivity. The mechanistic roles of Ti-O-C interfacial bonding, band alignment, defect-state modulation, and interfacial electron transfer are systematically discussed in relation to photocatalytic activity across major antibiotic classes, including tetracyclines, fluoroquinolones, β-lactams, and sulfonamides. In addition, the effects of adsorption behavior, operational parameters, environmental matrix components, and reactor configuration on degradation efficiency and mineralization are critically evaluated. Special attention is devoted to degradation pathways, catalyst photostability, ecotoxicological considerations, and challenges associated with real-water applications and large-scale implementation. Current limitations, including insufficient mechanistic validation, lack of standardized benchmarking protocols, and limited long-term environmental safety assessment, are also highlighted. Finally, current research priorities involving mechanistic validation, predictive interfacial engineering, standardized benchmarking, environmental safety assessment, and solar-driven photocatalytic design are highlighted to guide the future development of sustainable antibiotic-remediation technologies.
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BibTeX
@article{mohammed2026carbon,
title = {{Carbon dot/TiO₂ nanocomposites for photocatalytic antibiotic degradation: interfacial engineering, degradation mechanisms, and environmental remediation.}},
author = {Sewara J Mohammed and Eman O Hamarashid and Hastyar H Najmuldeen and Dana A Kader and Mohammed K Sidiq and Faiq H S Hussain and Awat S Mohammed and Fayez Alghofaili and Govar H Hamasalih and Shakhawan A Mhamad and Yar M Faqi-Khedr and Kawan F Kayani and Othman K Hamaamin and Shujahadeen B Aziz},
journal = {RSC advances},
year = {2026},
month = oct,
doi = {10.1039/d6ra08578d},
url = {https://europepmc.org/article/MED/42953820},
note = {CC BY},
}
RIS
TY - JOUR
TI - Carbon dot/TiO₂ nanocomposites for photocatalytic antibiotic degradation: interfacial engineering, degradation mechanisms, and environmental remediation.
AU - Sewara J Mohammed
AU - Eman O Hamarashid
AU - Hastyar H Najmuldeen
AU - Dana A Kader
AU - Mohammed K Sidiq
AU - Faiq H S Hussain
AU - Awat S Mohammed
AU - Fayez Alghofaili
AU - Govar H Hamasalih
AU - Shakhawan A Mhamad
AU - Yar M Faqi-Khedr
AU - Kawan F Kayani
AU - Othman K Hamaamin
AU - Shujahadeen B Aziz
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/10/28
JO - RSC advances
DO - 10.1039/d6ra08578d
UR - https://europepmc.org/article/MED/42953820
AB - The widespread presence of antibiotic residues in aquatic environments contributes to ecological toxicity and accelerates antimicrobial resistance (AMR), highlighting the need for efficient and sustainable remediation technologies. Among advanced oxidation processes, TiO2-based photocatalysis has attracted considerable attention because of its chemical stability, low toxicity, and strong oxidative capability. However, the practical application of TiO2 is limited by poor visible-light absorption and rapid electron-hole recombination. Carbon dots (CDs) have emerged as highly promising interfacial modifiers owing to their tunable electronic structure, visible-light responsiveness, and efficient charge-transfer capability, enabling substantial enhancement of TiO2 photocatalytic performance. This review critically examines recent advances in CDs/TiO2 nanocomposites for photocatalytic antibiotic degradation, with particular emphasis on how heterointerface engineering governs charge-carrier dynamics, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and degradation selectivity. The mechanistic roles of Ti-O-C interfacial bonding, band alignment, defect-state modulation, and interfacial electron transfer are systematically discussed in relation to photocatalytic activity across major antibiotic classes, including tetracyclines, fluoroquinolones, β-lactams, and sulfonamides. In addition, the effects of adsorption behavior, operational parameters, environmental matrix components, and reactor configuration on degradation efficiency and mineralization are critically evaluated. Special attention is devoted to degradation pathways, catalyst photostability, ecotoxicological considerations, and challenges associated with real-water applications and large-scale implementation. Current limitations, including insufficient mechanistic validation, lack of standardized benchmarking protocols, and limited long-term environmental safety assessment, are also highlighted. Finally, current research priorities involving mechanistic validation, predictive interfacial engineering, standardized benchmarking, environmental safety assessment, and solar-driven photocatalytic design are highlighted to guide the future development of sustainable antibiotic-remediation technologies.
SN - 2046-2069
ER -