Environmental Performance of a Waste-Derived Phenol–Formaldehyde/Glass-Fibre Composite: Leaching and Multispecies Evidence for Safe Circular Design
4 affiliations
- 1Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Environment Protection and Management, Faculty of Technology and Natural Sciences, University of Rzeszów, Ćwiklińskiej 1a, 35-601 Rzeszów, Poland
- 2Faculty of Oceanography and Geography, University of Gdańsk, Piłsudskiego 46, 81-378 Gdynia, Poland
- 3C4IN, Rudna Wielka 27d, 36-054 Rudna Wielka, Poland
- 4PureEkoTech Sp. z o.o., Metalowcowa 26, 39-460 Nowa Deba, Poland
Abstract
Industrial-residue valorisation through polymer-composite manufacturing can reduce reliance on virgin resources, yet the environmental safety of such materials is rarely evaluated beyond conventional physicochemical characterisation. This study provides a novel, integrated assessment of a waste-derived phenol–formaldehyde/glass-fibre composite by combining pH-dependent leaching analysis with a multispecies ecotoxicological test battery. The composite contained post-production glass fibres, paper flakes, and viscose fibres bound with phenol–formaldehyde resin. Under near-neutral extraction conditions, most analysed metals and metalloids showed limited release. In contrast, acidic conditions substantially increased the mobilisation of Ba, Cr, Zn, Cu, and Pb, while the phenol index increased approximately 28-fold, from 0.25 ± 0.06 to 6.9 ± 1.7 mg L−1. Biological responses differed markedly among taxa. Hordeum vulgare and Eisenia andrei showed limited short-term effects, whereas the marine diatom Skeletonema marinoi exhibited pronounced concentration- and time-related inhibition, with no cells detected after three days of exposure to the highest extract loading. The Aliivibrio fischeri assay also revealed concentration-dependent acute toxicity, with the strongest effects observed during the initial exposure period. The pronounced algal response could not be fully explained by the targeted chemical analyses, indicating a possible contribution of unidentified leachable constituents or mixture effects. The novelty of this study lies in demonstrating that technical functionality, waste diversion, and low concentrations of selected regulated contaminants do not alone ensure the environmental safety of waste-derived polymer composites. Integrating stress-condition leaching with sensitive biological endpoints offers a practical framework for safe-by-design formulation, application selection, and end-of-life management. Further studies should address material ageing, repeated leaching, particle release, and non-target identification of bioactive constituents.
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BibTeX
@article{podolak2026environmental,
title = {{Environmental Performance of a Waste-Derived Phenol–Formaldehyde/Glass-Fibre Composite: Leaching and Multispecies Evidence for Safe Circular Design}},
author = {Agnieszka Podolak and Justyna Koc-Jurczyk and Zuzanna Sylwestrzak and Łukasz Jurczyk and Waldemar Prokop},
journal = {Polymers},
year = {2026},
month = nov,
doi = {10.3390/polym18212744},
url = {https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4360/18/21/2744},
note = {CC BY 4.0},
}
RIS
TY - JOUR
TI - Environmental Performance of a Waste-Derived Phenol–Formaldehyde/Glass-Fibre Composite: Leaching and Multispecies Evidence for Safe Circular Design
AU - Agnieszka Podolak
AU - Justyna Koc-Jurczyk
AU - Zuzanna Sylwestrzak
AU - Łukasz Jurczyk
AU - Waldemar Prokop
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/11/04
JO - Polymers
DO - 10.3390/polym18212744
UR - https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4360/18/21/2744
AB - Industrial-residue valorisation through polymer-composite manufacturing can reduce reliance on virgin resources, yet the environmental safety of such materials is rarely evaluated beyond conventional physicochemical characterisation. This study provides a novel, integrated assessment of a waste-derived phenol–formaldehyde/glass-fibre composite by combining pH-dependent leaching analysis with a multispecies ecotoxicological test battery. The composite contained post-production glass fibres, paper flakes, and viscose fibres bound with phenol–formaldehyde resin. Under near-neutral extraction conditions, most analysed metals and metalloids showed limited release. In contrast, acidic conditions substantially increased the mobilisation of Ba, Cr, Zn, Cu, and Pb, while the phenol index increased approximately 28-fold, from 0.25 ± 0.06 to 6.9 ± 1.7 mg L−1. Biological responses differed markedly among taxa. Hordeum vulgare and Eisenia andrei showed limited short-term effects, whereas the marine diatom Skeletonema marinoi exhibited pronounced concentration- and time-related inhibition, with no cells detected after three days of exposure to the highest extract loading. The Aliivibrio fischeri assay also revealed concentration-dependent acute toxicity, with the strongest effects observed during the initial exposure period. The pronounced algal response could not be fully explained by the targeted chemical analyses, indicating a possible contribution of unidentified leachable constituents or mixture effects. The novelty of this study lies in demonstrating that technical functionality, waste diversion, and low concentrations of selected regulated contaminants do not alone ensure the environmental safety of waste-derived polymer composites. Integrating stress-condition leaching with sensitive biological endpoints offers a practical framework for safe-by-design formulation, application selection, and end-of-life management. Further studies should address material ageing, repeated leaching, particle release, and non-target identification of bioactive constituents.
SN - 2073-4360
ER -