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Peer-reviewedCC BYOphthalmic epidemiology

Factors Associated with Active Trachoma in Alto Amazonas, Peru

  • John M. Nesemann1,2,3
  • Noelia Morocho-Alburqueque3,4
  • Alvaro Quincho-Lopez3,5
  • Dionna M. Wittberg1
  • Harvy A. Honorio-Morales6
  • Salomón Durand7
  • Martha Idalí Saboyá-Díaz8
  • Ana Bakhtiari9
  • Cristina Jimenez10
  • Emma M. Harding-Esch11
  • Sandra L. Talero12
  • Marleny Muñoz13
4 more authors
  • Anthony W. Solomon14
  • Jeffrey D. Klausner15
  • Jeremy D. Keenan1,2
  • Andres G. Lescano3
15 affiliations
  1. 1Francis I Proctor Foundation, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
  2. 2Department of Ophthalmology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
  3. 3Emerge, Emerging Diseases and Climate Change Research Unit, School of Public Health and Administration, Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
  4. 4Piura Medical School, Piura, Peru
  5. 5Medical School, Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, Peru
  6. 6Componente de Salud Ocular y Prevención de la Ceguera, Ministerio de Salud, Lima, Perú
  7. 7Gerencia Regional de Salud Loreto, Iquitos, Perú
  8. 8Communicable Diseases Elimination Initiative, Pan American Health Organization, Washington DC, USA
  9. 9International Trachoma Initiative, Task Force for Global Health, Decatur, Georgia, USA
  10. 10Sightsavers, Haywards Heath, UK
  11. 11Clinical Research Department, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, UK
  12. 12Neglected, Tropical and Vector Borne Diseases Unit, Pan American Health Organization, Washington DC, USA
  13. 13Dirección de Epidemiología, Red de Salud Alto Amazonas, Yurimaguas, Perú
  14. 14Global Neglected Tropical Diseases Programme, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
  15. 15Division of Disease Prevention, Policy and Global Health, Department of Preventive Medicine, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California, USA
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Abstract

Purpose:: Factors associated with trachoma have been well characterized in Sub-Saharan Africa, including poverty, crowding, and poor access to water, sanitation, and hygiene. However, the relationship between these factors and trachoma may be different in non-African settings. The aim of this study was to determine the most important factors associated with active trachoma among children in an area of the Peruvian Amazon.

Methods:: Questionnaires and conjunctival photography were performed in a cross-sectional random sample of children aged 1–9 years from 21 communities in Alto Amazonas, Peru. Conjunctival photographs were graded by three trachoma experts for the presence of active trachoma.

Results:: Of 750 children with complete data, 229 had active trachoma. Factors most associated with active trachoma included living with a pre-school-aged sibling (adjusted prevalence ratio [PR] 1.61, 95%CI 1.23–2.11), having an unimproved water source for face-washing (PR 1.87, 95%CI 1.23–2.84), absence of a latrine (PR 1.68, 95%CI 1.04–2.70, comparing those with no latrine to those with access to an improved latrine), and household ownership of chickens (PR 1.58, 95%CI 1.13–2.21). Active trachoma was associated with lower scores on a hygiene index (PR 1.18 per unit decrement, 95%CI 1.04–1.33) and an asset-based wealth index (PR 1.14, 95%CI 1.02–1.28).

Conclusions:: The most important factors associated with active trachoma in this study were exposure to young children, poor access to water, sanitation, and hygiene, and indicators of poverty. These factors are similar to those of previous studies of trachoma in other parts of the world.

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Cite

BibTeXRIS
BibTeX
@article{nesemann2026factors,
  title = {{Factors Associated with Active Trachoma in Alto Amazonas, Peru}},
  author = {John M. Nesemann and Noelia Morocho-Alburqueque and Alvaro Quincho-Lopez and Dionna M. Wittberg and Harvy A. Honorio-Morales and Salomón Durand and Martha Idalí Saboyá-Díaz and Ana Bakhtiari and Cristina Jimenez and Emma M. Harding-Esch and Sandra L. Talero and Marleny Muñoz and Anthony W. Solomon and Jeffrey D. Klausner and Jeremy D. Keenan and Andres G. Lescano},
  journal = {Ophthalmic epidemiology},
  year = {2026},
  month = oct,
  doi = {10.1080/09286586.2026.2702461},
  url = {https://europepmc.org/article/PMC/PMC13718684},
  note = {CC BY},
}
RIS
TY  - JOUR
TI  - Factors Associated with Active Trachoma in Alto Amazonas, Peru
AU  - John M. Nesemann
AU  - Noelia Morocho-Alburqueque
AU  - Alvaro Quincho-Lopez
AU  - Dionna M. Wittberg
AU  - Harvy A. Honorio-Morales
AU  - Salomón Durand
AU  - Martha Idalí Saboyá-Díaz
AU  - Ana Bakhtiari
AU  - Cristina Jimenez
AU  - Emma M. Harding-Esch
AU  - Sandra L. Talero
AU  - Marleny Muñoz
AU  - Anthony W. Solomon
AU  - Jeffrey D. Klausner
AU  - Jeremy D. Keenan
AU  - Andres G. Lescano
PY  - 2026
DA  - 2026/10/28
JO  - Ophthalmic epidemiology
DO  - 10.1080/09286586.2026.2702461
UR  - https://europepmc.org/article/PMC/PMC13718684
AB  - Purpose:: Factors associated with trachoma have been well characterized in Sub-Saharan Africa, including poverty, crowding, and poor access to water, sanitation, and hygiene. However, the relationship between these factors and trachoma may be different in non-African settings. The aim of this study was to determine the most important factors associated with active trachoma among children in an area of the Peruvian Amazon.  Methods:: Questionnaires and conjunctival photography were performed in a cross-sectional random sample of children aged 1–9 years from 21 communities in Alto Amazonas, Peru. Conjunctival photographs were graded by three trachoma experts for the presence of active trachoma.  Results:: Of 750 children with complete data, 229 had active trachoma. Factors most associated with active trachoma included living with a pre-school-aged sibling (adjusted prevalence ratio [PR] 1.61, 95%CI 1.23–2.11), having an unimproved water source for face-washing (PR 1.87, 95%CI 1.23–2.84), absence of a latrine (PR 1.68, 95%CI 1.04–2.70, comparing those with no latrine to those with access to an improved latrine), and household ownership of chickens (PR 1.58, 95%CI 1.13–2.21). Active trachoma was associated with lower scores on a hygiene index (PR 1.18 per unit decrement, 95%CI 1.04–1.33) and an asset-based wealth index (PR 1.14, 95%CI 1.02–1.28).  Conclusions:: The most important factors associated with active trachoma in this study were exposure to young children, poor access to water, sanitation, and hygiene, and indicators of poverty. These factors are similar to those of previous studies of trachoma in other parts of the world.
SN  - 0928-6586
SN  - 1744-5086
ER  -