Insecticide resistance profile of the Anopheles gambiae s.l. mosquitoes in Nigeria: a 5-year malaria vector surveillance report
28 affiliations
- 1Nigerian Institute of Medical Research, Yaba, Lagos, Nigeria
- 2National Malaria Elimination Program, Federal Ministry of Health, Abuja, Nigeria
- 3Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria
- 4Taraba State University, Jalingo, Nigeria
- 5State College of Health Science, Takum, Adamawa Nigeria
- 6Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Federal University, Dutse, Jigawa Nigeria
- 7Umar Suleiman College of Education, Gashu’a, Yobe State Nigeria
- 8Yobe State University, Damaturu, Nigeria
- 9University of Science and Technology, Kano, Kano State Nigeria
- 10Yusuf Maitama Sule University, Kano, Kano State Nigeria
- 11Department of Biology, Umaru Musa Yar’adua University, Batagarawa, Katsina State Nigeria
- 12Federal University Dutsinma, Dutsinma, Katsina Nigeria
- 13Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Gombe State University, Gombe, Nigeria
- 14Department of Animal & Environmental Biology, Delta State University, Abraka, Delta State Nigeria
- 15Department of Biological Sciences, Taraba State University, Jalingo, Nigeria
- 16Department of Zoology, Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences, Osun State University, Osogbo, Nigeria
- 17ABT Associates, Keffi, Nasarawa State Nigeria
- 18Department of Zoology, Kwara State University, Malete, Kwara Nigeria
- 19Department of Zoology, Madibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola, Adamawa State Nigeria
- 20Community Vision, Abuja, Nigeria
- 21University of Abuja, Abuja, FCT Nigeria
- 22Department of Zoology, Adamawa State University, Mubi, Adamawa State Nigeria
- 23Department of Zoology, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Kwara State Nigeria
- 24Department of Animal Biology, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria
- 25Centre for Infectious Diseases Research, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria
- 26World Health Organization, Abuja, Lagos State Nigeria
- 27Global Fund, Abuja, Federal Capital Territory Nigeria
- 28Faculty of Health Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria
Abstract
Background: Nigeria bears the highest malaria burden globally, with vector control strategies relying heavily on the use of Long-lasting Insecticidal nets (LLINs). However, the widespread emergence of insecticide resistance threatens the effectiveness of this intervention in the country. This study provides a comprehensive 5-year overview (2020–2024) of the resistance status and resistance mechanisms of Anopheles mosquitoes in Nigeria.
Methods: Immature stages of mosquitoes were collected from 72 local government areas (spanning 12 States), raised to adults and exposed to standard concentrations of permethrin, deltamethrin, alphacypermethrin, and pirimiphos-methyl insecticide papers according to WHO criteria for 5 years (2020–2024). Furthermore, molecular test and bioassays were used to determine the involvement of kdr-L995F mutation and oxidase-based metabolic enzymes in areas where resistance was confirmed. All mosquitoes tested were identified morphologically. Spatial and temporal patterns of insecticide susceptibility results were visualised using geospatial mapping tools in R (sf, tidyr, ggplot2).
Results: Members of the Anopheles gambiae complex accounted for 95% of all mosquitoes tested across the 72 LGAs, with Anopheles coluzzii comprising 79.8% of collections. Other species encountered included An. funestus, An. pretoriensis, An. malculipalpis, and An. nilli. Widespread and persistent resistance to pyrethroid insecticides was detected throughout the study period. Mortality to permethrin remained consistently low (0–75%), indicating high levels of resistance across most locations. Resistance to deltamethrin and alphacypermethrin was also widespread but generally less pronounced, with mortality ranging from 10 to 90% and 20–80%, respectively. Temporal trends revealed localized reductions in resistance intensity between 2022 and 2023, coinciding with periods of large-scale LLINs distribution in several States. Synergist bioassays demonstrated substantial involvement of oxidase-based metabolic mechanisms, suggesting that multiple resistance mechanisms are operating across Nigeria. The frequency of the kdr-w mutation ranged from 0.0 to 0.7 and generally increased between 2021 and 2023 before declining slightly in 2024. While kdr-w frequency was significantly associated with reduced mortality to deltamethrin (τ = − 0.179, p < 0.001), no corresponding association was observed for permethrin (τ ≈ 0, p = 0.998), and the mutation was not a significant predictor of pyrethroid mortality overall after accounting for insecticide type and spatial clustering (β = 10.50, p = 0.078). These findings indicate that the contribution of kdr-mediated resistance varies among pyrethroid compounds.
Conclusion: The predominance of Anopheles coluzzii in tested collections, coupled with pervasive pyrethroid resistance and widespread oxidase-based metabolic resistant mechanisms, poses significant challenges to malaria vector control efforts in Nigeria. These findings underscore the urgent need to prioritize efforts at managing metabolic resistance mechanisms through integrated vector control and further strengthen IRS with the use of non-pyrethroid insecticides. Enhanced surveillance, including molecular diagnostics and monitoring of agricultural pesticide use, will be critical for sustaining malaria control gains and informing adaptive, evidence-driven intervention planning in Nigeria.
Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-026-06083-9.
Related
- Detection of Plasmodium falciparum-infected Anopheles sergentii with reduced insecticide net susceptibility in a dryland ecosystem of the Kenyan Rift Valley: implications for malaria surveillance and vector control
- Spatial and temporal dynamics of insecticide resistance in the Anopheles gambiae complex, with a focus on Anopheles coluzzii, in Burkina Faso
- Genomic analysis reveals selection pressure and the emergence of molecular insecticide resistance in the malaria vector, Anopheles gambiae, from Western Ethiopia.
- Insecticide resistance intensity in Anopheles gambiae s.l. populations from Nioro and Ndoffane health districts, Senegal
- Insecticide resistance status predetermines behavioural responses and oviposition fitness in Anopheles coluzzii
BibTeX
@article{adeogun2026insecticide,
title = {{Insecticide resistance profile of the Anopheles gambiae s.l. mosquitoes in Nigeria: a 5-year malaria vector surveillance report}},
author = {Adedapo O. Adeogun and Ayodele S. Babalola and Tolulope A. Oyeniyi and Okoko O. Oyale and Romoke T. Izekor and Oluwakemi Adetunji and Abiodun Olakiigbe and Olalekan Olagundoye and Julius A. Bamidele and Adetunji I. Adeniran and Nofisat F. Lawal and Philemon Babylon and Atinga Atimi and Sufi A. Danjuma and Tasiu Shuaibu and Jibrin M. Mabu and Kabiru Salisu and Asma’u H. Abubakar and Mahmud Sufyan and Kabir B. Abdullahi and Adamu Isa and Ezra Abba and Abdulmalik B. Shuaibu and Victor N. Enwemiwe and Esiwo Eric and Wama B. Emmanuel and Liatu C. Garba and Abdullahi M. Daskum and Monsuru A. Adeleke and Chioma C. Ojianwuna and Elkanah O. Sambo and Adedayo Oduola and Petrus U. Inyama and Lazarus Samdi and Abiodun Obembe and Mustapha M. Dogara and Kennedy P. Yoriyo and Suleiman Mohammed and Rebecca S. Naphtali and Chioma Amajoh and Adesoye Oluwaseun and Fatima Ali and Adesola Musa and Wahedi Jasini and Bala Mohammed and Esema Mary and Omo-Eboh Mamudu and Olufunmilayo A. Idowu and Adeolu Ande and Kayode I. Olayemi and Manu Yayo Abdulsalami and Ademu Cyril and Okoronko Chukwu and Ozor Lynda and Ssekitooleko James and Kawu Issa and Mokuolu Olugbenga and Nnenna Ogbulafor and Awolola Samson},
journal = {Malaria Journal},
year = {2026},
month = aug,
doi = {10.1186/s12936-026-06083-9},
url = {https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-026-06083-9},
note = {CC BY 4.0},
}
RIS
TY - JOUR
TI - Insecticide resistance profile of the Anopheles gambiae s.l. mosquitoes in Nigeria: a 5-year malaria vector surveillance report
AU - Adedapo O. Adeogun
AU - Ayodele S. Babalola
AU - Tolulope A. Oyeniyi
AU - Okoko O. Oyale
AU - Romoke T. Izekor
AU - Oluwakemi Adetunji
AU - Abiodun Olakiigbe
AU - Olalekan Olagundoye
AU - Julius A. Bamidele
AU - Adetunji I. Adeniran
AU - Nofisat F. Lawal
AU - Philemon Babylon
AU - Atinga Atimi
AU - Sufi A. Danjuma
AU - Tasiu Shuaibu
AU - Jibrin M. Mabu
AU - Kabiru Salisu
AU - Asma’u H. Abubakar
AU - Mahmud Sufyan
AU - Kabir B. Abdullahi
AU - Adamu Isa
AU - Ezra Abba
AU - Abdulmalik B. Shuaibu
AU - Victor N. Enwemiwe
AU - Esiwo Eric
AU - Wama B. Emmanuel
AU - Liatu C. Garba
AU - Abdullahi M. Daskum
AU - Monsuru A. Adeleke
AU - Chioma C. Ojianwuna
AU - Elkanah O. Sambo
AU - Adedayo Oduola
AU - Petrus U. Inyama
AU - Lazarus Samdi
AU - Abiodun Obembe
AU - Mustapha M. Dogara
AU - Kennedy P. Yoriyo
AU - Suleiman Mohammed
AU - Rebecca S. Naphtali
AU - Chioma Amajoh
AU - Adesoye Oluwaseun
AU - Fatima Ali
AU - Adesola Musa
AU - Wahedi Jasini
AU - Bala Mohammed
AU - Esema Mary
AU - Omo-Eboh Mamudu
AU - Olufunmilayo A. Idowu
AU - Adeolu Ande
AU - Kayode I. Olayemi
AU - Manu Yayo Abdulsalami
AU - Ademu Cyril
AU - Okoronko Chukwu
AU - Ozor Lynda
AU - Ssekitooleko James
AU - Kawu Issa
AU - Mokuolu Olugbenga
AU - Nnenna Ogbulafor
AU - Awolola Samson
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/08/10
JO - Malaria Journal
DO - 10.1186/s12936-026-06083-9
UR - https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-026-06083-9
AB - Background: Nigeria bears the highest malaria burden globally, with vector control strategies relying heavily on the use of Long-lasting Insecticidal nets (LLINs). However, the widespread emergence of insecticide resistance threatens the effectiveness of this intervention in the country. This study provides a comprehensive 5-year overview (2020–2024) of the resistance status and resistance mechanisms of Anopheles mosquitoes in Nigeria. Methods: Immature stages of mosquitoes were collected from 72 local government areas (spanning 12 States), raised to adults and exposed to standard concentrations of permethrin, deltamethrin, alphacypermethrin, and pirimiphos-methyl insecticide papers according to WHO criteria for 5 years (2020–2024). Furthermore, molecular test and bioassays were used to determine the involvement of kdr-L995F mutation and oxidase-based metabolic enzymes in areas where resistance was confirmed. All mosquitoes tested were identified morphologically. Spatial and temporal patterns of insecticide susceptibility results were visualised using geospatial mapping tools in R (sf, tidyr, ggplot2). Results: Members of the Anopheles gambiae complex accounted for 95% of all mosquitoes tested across the 72 LGAs, with Anopheles coluzzii comprising 79.8% of collections. Other species encountered included An. funestus, An. pretoriensis, An. malculipalpis, and An. nilli. Widespread and persistent resistance to pyrethroid insecticides was detected throughout the study period. Mortality to permethrin remained consistently low (0–75%), indicating high levels of resistance across most locations. Resistance to deltamethrin and alphacypermethrin was also widespread but generally less pronounced, with mortality ranging from 10 to 90% and 20–80%, respectively. Temporal trends revealed localized reductions in resistance intensity between 2022 and 2023, coinciding with periods of large-scale LLINs distribution in several States. Synergist bioassays demonstrated substantial involvement of oxidase-based metabolic mechanisms, suggesting that multiple resistance mechanisms are operating across Nigeria. The frequency of the kdr-w mutation ranged from 0.0 to 0.7 and generally increased between 2021 and 2023 before declining slightly in 2024. While kdr-w frequency was significantly associated with reduced mortality to deltamethrin (τ = − 0.179, p < 0.001), no corresponding association was observed for permethrin (τ ≈ 0, p = 0.998), and the mutation was not a significant predictor of pyrethroid mortality overall after accounting for insecticide type and spatial clustering (β = 10.50, p = 0.078). These findings indicate that the contribution of kdr-mediated resistance varies among pyrethroid compounds. Conclusion: The predominance of Anopheles coluzzii in tested collections, coupled with pervasive pyrethroid resistance and widespread oxidase-based metabolic resistant mechanisms, poses significant challenges to malaria vector control efforts in Nigeria. These findings underscore the urgent need to prioritize efforts at managing metabolic resistance mechanisms through integrated vector control and further strengthen IRS with the use of non-pyrethroid insecticides. Enhanced surveillance, including molecular diagnostics and monitoring of agricultural pesticide use, will be critical for sustaining malaria control gains and informing adaptive, evidence-driven intervention planning in Nigeria. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi.org/10.1186/s12936-026-06083-9.
SN - 1475-2875
ER -