Wild carnivores in the Netherlands show molecular and serological evidence of West Nile virus and Usutu virus infection
5 affiliations
- 1Department of Viroscience, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
- 2Division of Pathology, Department of Biomedical Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- 3Jasja Dekker Dierecologie BV, Enkhuizenstraat, Arnhem, The Netherlands
- 4Ecosensys, Het Aanleg, Winsum, The Netherlands
- 5Dutch Wildlife Health Centre, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
Abstract
Birds are primary reservoirs and amplifying hosts for flaviviruses like West Nile virus (WNV) and Usutu virus (USUV). Wild mammals are also susceptible, although their role remains poorly characterised due to limited studies investigating wild mammal infections. In the Netherlands, WNV and USUV circulate among birds and mosquitoes, with evidence for infections in domestic avian species, horses (WNV) and humans. Wild carnivores may also be exposed through mosquito bites or by ingestion of infected prey. To better understand the ecology and epidemiology of both viruses in wild mammals, we investigated the extent of WNV and USUV exposure in free-ranging wild carnivores in the Netherlands. Samples from wild carnivores, collected across the Netherlands from 2020 to 2023, were tested for viral RNA using RT-PCR, and for antibodies using a protein microarray (PMA) alongside focus reduction neutralisation test (FRNT90). USUV-RNA was detected in nine (1.1%) of 818 carnivores. Positives included a weasel (Mustela nivalis), a Eurasian badger (Meles meles), a red fox (Vulpes vulpes), and six stone martens (Martes foina), sampled between 2020 and 2022. Partial USUV-sequences were obtained from the weasel, Eurasian badger, and red fox. These sequences cluster with sequences from Dutch wild birds and mosquitoes. WNV- and/or USUV-antibodies were detected in 1.5% (6/413) and 1.9% (8/413) of the carnivores, respectively. WNV- and USUV- antibodies were found in red foxes and stone martens. The detections of antibodies to both viruses and USUV RNA in several species suggest that wild carnivores in the Netherlands are indeed exposed and may serve as sentinel hosts.
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BibTeX
@article{atama2026wild,
title = {{Wild carnivores in the Netherlands show molecular and serological evidence of West Nile virus and Usutu virus infection}},
author = {Nnomzie C. Atama and Cora M. Holicki and Emmanuelle Münger and Anne van der Linden and Gianfilippo Agliani and Felicity D. Chandler and Irina V. Chestakova and Erley Lizarazo-Forero and Jasja J. A. Dekker and Bob Jonge Poerink and Ruby Wagensveld and Bas B. Oude Munnink and Marion G. Koopmans and Judith M. A. van den Brand and Reina S. Sikkema},
journal = {npj Viruses},
year = {2026},
month = jul,
doi = {10.1038/s44298-026-00211-7},
url = {https://doi.org/10.1038/s44298-026-00211-7},
note = {CC BY-NC-ND 4.0},
}
RIS
TY - JOUR
TI - Wild carnivores in the Netherlands show molecular and serological evidence of West Nile virus and Usutu virus infection
AU - Nnomzie C. Atama
AU - Cora M. Holicki
AU - Emmanuelle Münger
AU - Anne van der Linden
AU - Gianfilippo Agliani
AU - Felicity D. Chandler
AU - Irina V. Chestakova
AU - Erley Lizarazo-Forero
AU - Jasja J. A. Dekker
AU - Bob Jonge Poerink
AU - Ruby Wagensveld
AU - Bas B. Oude Munnink
AU - Marion G. Koopmans
AU - Judith M. A. van den Brand
AU - Reina S. Sikkema
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/07/11
JO - npj Viruses
DO - 10.1038/s44298-026-00211-7
UR - https://doi.org/10.1038/s44298-026-00211-7
AB - Birds are primary reservoirs and amplifying hosts for flaviviruses like West Nile virus (WNV) and Usutu virus (USUV). Wild mammals are also susceptible, although their role remains poorly characterised due to limited studies investigating wild mammal infections. In the Netherlands, WNV and USUV circulate among birds and mosquitoes, with evidence for infections in domestic avian species, horses (WNV) and humans. Wild carnivores may also be exposed through mosquito bites or by ingestion of infected prey. To better understand the ecology and epidemiology of both viruses in wild mammals, we investigated the extent of WNV and USUV exposure in free-ranging wild carnivores in the Netherlands. Samples from wild carnivores, collected across the Netherlands from 2020 to 2023, were tested for viral RNA using RT-PCR, and for antibodies using a protein microarray (PMA) alongside focus reduction neutralisation test (FRNT90). USUV-RNA was detected in nine (1.1%) of 818 carnivores. Positives included a weasel (Mustela nivalis), a Eurasian badger (Meles meles), a red fox (Vulpes vulpes), and six stone martens (Martes foina), sampled between 2020 and 2022. Partial USUV-sequences were obtained from the weasel, Eurasian badger, and red fox. These sequences cluster with sequences from Dutch wild birds and mosquitoes. WNV- and/or USUV-antibodies were detected in 1.5% (6/413) and 1.9% (8/413) of the carnivores, respectively. WNV- and USUV- antibodies were found in red foxes and stone martens. The detections of antibodies to both viruses and USUV RNA in several species suggest that wild carnivores in the Netherlands are indeed exposed and may serve as sentinel hosts.
SN - 2948-1767
ER -