Food-Associated Xenobiotics and Innate Immunity: Molecular and Cellular Effects of Imazalil, TBHQ (Tert-Butylhydroquinone), Carrageenans, and Monosodium Glutamate
- 1Department of Microbiology and Clinical Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland
- 2Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Warmia and Mazury, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland
Abstract
Food-associated xenobiotics may influence innate immune responses, but the relevance of experimental findings to human dietary exposure remains uncertain. This narrative review critically examines evidence concerning imazalil, tert-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ), carrageenans, and monosodium glutamate (MSG), representing a post-harvest fungicide, a synthetic antioxidant, a hydrocolloid, and a flavor enhancer, respectively. Experimental findings are compared across cellular and humoral innate immune endpoints, with attention to chemical form, dose, administration route, exposure duration, and the distinction between biomarker changes and adverse functional outcomes. Reported effects involve redox-sensitive signaling, cytokine regulation, macrophage and neutrophil responses, NK-cell activation and effector-associated markers, and intestinal barrier–microbiota interactions. These overlapping processes do not establish equivalent mechanisms or immunotoxic potential. TBHQ has a comparatively well-characterized connection to Nrf2 activation, although Nrf2 dependence has not been established for every reported immune effect. Imazalil evidence is narrower and requires independent replication, whereas findings for carrageenans depend strongly on material characterization and experimental context. MSG findings vary with dose, route, life stage, and metabolic conditions. Moreover, the predominantly preclinical literature includes exposure conditions whose correspondence to human dietary intake is uncertain. Consequently, available evidence supports context-dependent innate immune modulation but does not establish clinically meaningful immune impairment at customary dietary exposure. Further progress requires exposure-informed studies linking molecular and cellular changes to persistent functional effects and adverse outcomes, supported by human-relevant systems and human investigations where feasible. Such evidence would clarify the contribution of innate immune endpoints to food-safety assessment.
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BibTeX
@article{sayareh2026foodassociated,
title = {{Food-Associated Xenobiotics and Innate Immunity: Molecular and Cellular Effects of Imazalil, TBHQ (Tert-Butylhydroquinone), Carrageenans, and Monosodium Glutamate}},
author = {Fatemeh Sayareh and Grzegorz Zwierzchowski and Roman Wójcik},
journal = {International Journal of Molecular Sciences},
year = {2026},
month = oct,
doi = {10.3390/ijms27219580},
url = {https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/27/21/9580},
note = {CC BY 4.0},
}
RIS
TY - JOUR
TI - Food-Associated Xenobiotics and Innate Immunity: Molecular and Cellular Effects of Imazalil, TBHQ (Tert-Butylhydroquinone), Carrageenans, and Monosodium Glutamate
AU - Fatemeh Sayareh
AU - Grzegorz Zwierzchowski
AU - Roman Wójcik
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/10/26
JO - International Journal of Molecular Sciences
DO - 10.3390/ijms27219580
UR - https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/27/21/9580
AB - Food-associated xenobiotics may influence innate immune responses, but the relevance of experimental findings to human dietary exposure remains uncertain. This narrative review critically examines evidence concerning imazalil, tert-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ), carrageenans, and monosodium glutamate (MSG), representing a post-harvest fungicide, a synthetic antioxidant, a hydrocolloid, and a flavor enhancer, respectively. Experimental findings are compared across cellular and humoral innate immune endpoints, with attention to chemical form, dose, administration route, exposure duration, and the distinction between biomarker changes and adverse functional outcomes. Reported effects involve redox-sensitive signaling, cytokine regulation, macrophage and neutrophil responses, NK-cell activation and effector-associated markers, and intestinal barrier–microbiota interactions. These overlapping processes do not establish equivalent mechanisms or immunotoxic potential. TBHQ has a comparatively well-characterized connection to Nrf2 activation, although Nrf2 dependence has not been established for every reported immune effect. Imazalil evidence is narrower and requires independent replication, whereas findings for carrageenans depend strongly on material characterization and experimental context. MSG findings vary with dose, route, life stage, and metabolic conditions. Moreover, the predominantly preclinical literature includes exposure conditions whose correspondence to human dietary intake is uncertain. Consequently, available evidence supports context-dependent innate immune modulation but does not establish clinically meaningful immune impairment at customary dietary exposure. Further progress requires exposure-informed studies linking molecular and cellular changes to persistent functional effects and adverse outcomes, supported by human-relevant systems and human investigations where feasible. Such evidence would clarify the contribution of innate immune endpoints to food-safety assessment.
SN - 1422-0067
ER -