Kinematics and muscle activation of the lower limb during barefoot and flip-flop running.
4 affiliations
- 1Department of Physical Therapy, China Medical University, No. 100, Section 1, Jingmao Road, Beitun District, Taichung City, Taiwan, R.O.C., 406040, Republic of China.
- 2Department of Biomedical Engineering, Medical Engineering and Rehabilitation Science, China Medical University, Taichung City, Taiwan, 406040, Republic of China.
- 3Department of Physical Therapy, China Medical University, No. 100, Section 1, Jingmao Road, Beitun District, Taichung City, Taiwan, R.O.C., 406040, Republic of China. [email protected].
- 4Department of Biomedical Engineering, Medical Engineering and Rehabilitation Science, China Medical University, Taichung City, Taiwan, 406040, Republic of China. [email protected].
Abstract
Background
Flip-flop and barefoot running are increasingly common; however, their biomechanical effects remain unclear. This study examined lower-limb kinematics and muscle activation during treadmill running under barefoot, conventional flip-flop, Y-Sandal, and shod conditions.Methods
Sixteen volunteers were recruited to run on a treadmill under four footwear conditions at three speeds. A three-dimensional motion capture system was used to collect kinematic data, and the activities of the tibialis anterior, extensor digitorum longus, and flexor hallucis longus muscles were simultaneously recorded using a wireless electromyography system.Results
Barefoot running was associated with higher cadence, whereas the Y-Sandal condition was associated with the shortest stance duration. The conventional flip-flop condition was associated with greater sagittal-plane hip motion compared with the Y-Sandal and shod conditions. The barefoot and conventional flip-flop conditions were associated with similar ankle and forefoot movement patterns in sagittal and frontal planes, whereas the Y-Sandal and shod conditions produced different patterns. Furthermore, significantly higher lower-leg muscle activation was observed under the conventional flip-flop and Y-Sandal conditions compared with the barefoot and shod conditions.Conclusion
Footwear design significantly affects running biomechanics and neuromuscular strategies. Although barefoot running promotes a higher cadence, thong-style footwear increases the demand on the distal musculature. The specific design features of the Y-Sandal appear to mitigate the compensatory kinematic strategies typically observed with conventional flip-flops, resulting in movement patterns that more closely resemble those observed during shod running. These findings highlight the distinct neuromuscular demands and kinematic adaptations associated with different footwear interfaces.
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BibTeX
@article{wong2026kinematics,
title = {{Kinematics and muscle activation of the lower limb during barefoot and flip-flop running.}},
author = {Chun Wai Wong and Chia-Ming Chang and Ying-Che Tseng and Chih-Wei Chen and Hsiu-Chen Lin},
journal = {BMC sports science, medicine \& rehabilitation},
year = {2026},
month = jul,
doi = {10.1186/s13102-026-01870-y},
url = {https://europepmc.org/article/MED/42897676},
note = {CC BY-NC-ND},
}
RIS
TY - JOUR
TI - Kinematics and muscle activation of the lower limb during barefoot and flip-flop running.
AU - Chun Wai Wong
AU - Chia-Ming Chang
AU - Ying-Che Tseng
AU - Chih-Wei Chen
AU - Hsiu-Chen Lin
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/07/01
JO - BMC sports science, medicine & rehabilitation
DO - 10.1186/s13102-026-01870-y
UR - https://europepmc.org/article/MED/42897676
AB - Background Flip-flop and barefoot running are increasingly common; however, their biomechanical effects remain unclear. This study examined lower-limb kinematics and muscle activation during treadmill running under barefoot, conventional flip-flop, Y-Sandal, and shod conditions.Methods Sixteen volunteers were recruited to run on a treadmill under four footwear conditions at three speeds. A three-dimensional motion capture system was used to collect kinematic data, and the activities of the tibialis anterior, extensor digitorum longus, and flexor hallucis longus muscles were simultaneously recorded using a wireless electromyography system.Results Barefoot running was associated with higher cadence, whereas the Y-Sandal condition was associated with the shortest stance duration. The conventional flip-flop condition was associated with greater sagittal-plane hip motion compared with the Y-Sandal and shod conditions. The barefoot and conventional flip-flop conditions were associated with similar ankle and forefoot movement patterns in sagittal and frontal planes, whereas the Y-Sandal and shod conditions produced different patterns. Furthermore, significantly higher lower-leg muscle activation was observed under the conventional flip-flop and Y-Sandal conditions compared with the barefoot and shod conditions.Conclusion Footwear design significantly affects running biomechanics and neuromuscular strategies. Although barefoot running promotes a higher cadence, thong-style footwear increases the demand on the distal musculature. The specific design features of the Y-Sandal appear to mitigate the compensatory kinematic strategies typically observed with conventional flip-flops, resulting in movement patterns that more closely resemble those observed during shod running. These findings highlight the distinct neuromuscular demands and kinematic adaptations associated with different footwear interfaces.
SN - 2052-1847
ER -