Rhizosphere triangular warfare: mechanistic insights for plant- beneficial microbe- pathogen interactions
4 affiliations
- 1School of Agriculture Science, LNCT University , , ,
- 2Key Laboratory of Sugarcane Biotechnology and Genetic Improvement (Guangxi), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Guangxi Key Laboratory of Sugarcane Genetic Improvement/Sugarcane Research Institute, Guangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences/Sugarcane Research Centre, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences , ,
- 3Department of Plant Breeding, Punjab Agricultural University , ,
- 4Research and Development Cell, Lovely Professional University , ,
Abstract
The rhizosphere is a living physical space that is constantly evolving and is characterized by a complex interplay between beneficial microbes, pathogens, and plants, mediated by molecular and ecological interactions. These three-way relationships constitute a rhizosphere “triangular warfare system,” which controls plant health, nutrient uptake, disease resistance, and plant resilience. This review provides a mechanistic overview of the molecular, metabolic and ecological processes underlying these tripartite interactions. We discuss how plants integrate pattern-triggered immunity (PTI), effector-triggered immunity (ETI), microbiome exudation, and hormone signaling to select beneficial microbes to exclude pathogen entry. Beneficial microbes deploy volatile organic compounds, induction of systemic resistance (ISR), secretion systems, phytotoxins, siderophores, lytic enzymes, and microbiome-disrupting strategies to enhance plant fitness, whereas pathogens use virulence effectors, lytic enzymes, secretion systems, phytotoxins, siderophores, and microbiome-disrupting strategies to overcome host defenses and restructure rhizosphere communities. Recent advances in multi-omics have revealed the intricate signaling networks, metabolic interactions, and microbial competition shaping these relationships under various environmental conditions. We further explore emerging opportunities in microbiome engineering, synthetic microbial consortia and disease-suppressive soil management for sustainable crop protection. This review synthesizes existing mechanistic knowledge and introduces the concept of ‘rhizosphere triangular warfare’ as a stepping stone toward the next generation of microbiome-based agriculture and precision rhizosphere engineering under environmental changes.
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BibTeX
@article{singh2026rhizosphere,
title = {{Rhizosphere triangular warfare: mechanistic insights for plant- beneficial microbe- pathogen interactions}},
author = {Pratiksha Singh and Rajesh Kumar Singh and Dao-Jun Guo and Mohini Prabha Singh and Bao-Qing Zhang and Xiu-Peng Song and Sudhir Kumar Upadhyay and Yang-Rui Li},
journal = {Frontiers in plant science},
year = {2026},
month = sep,
doi = {10.3389/fpls.2026.1942866},
url = {https://europepmc.org/article/PMC/PMC13663020},
note = {CC BY},
}
RIS
TY - JOUR
TI - Rhizosphere triangular warfare: mechanistic insights for plant- beneficial microbe- pathogen interactions
AU - Pratiksha Singh
AU - Rajesh Kumar Singh
AU - Dao-Jun Guo
AU - Mohini Prabha Singh
AU - Bao-Qing Zhang
AU - Xiu-Peng Song
AU - Sudhir Kumar Upadhyay
AU - Yang-Rui Li
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/09/30
JO - Frontiers in plant science
DO - 10.3389/fpls.2026.1942866
UR - https://europepmc.org/article/PMC/PMC13663020
AB - The rhizosphere is a living physical space that is constantly evolving and is characterized by a complex interplay between beneficial microbes, pathogens, and plants, mediated by molecular and ecological interactions. These three-way relationships constitute a rhizosphere “triangular warfare system,” which controls plant health, nutrient uptake, disease resistance, and plant resilience. This review provides a mechanistic overview of the molecular, metabolic and ecological processes underlying these tripartite interactions. We discuss how plants integrate pattern-triggered immunity (PTI), effector-triggered immunity (ETI), microbiome exudation, and hormone signaling to select beneficial microbes to exclude pathogen entry. Beneficial microbes deploy volatile organic compounds, induction of systemic resistance (ISR), secretion systems, phytotoxins, siderophores, lytic enzymes, and microbiome-disrupting strategies to enhance plant fitness, whereas pathogens use virulence effectors, lytic enzymes, secretion systems, phytotoxins, siderophores, and microbiome-disrupting strategies to overcome host defenses and restructure rhizosphere communities. Recent advances in multi-omics have revealed the intricate signaling networks, metabolic interactions, and microbial competition shaping these relationships under various environmental conditions. We further explore emerging opportunities in microbiome engineering, synthetic microbial consortia and disease-suppressive soil management for sustainable crop protection. This review synthesizes existing mechanistic knowledge and introduces the concept of ‘rhizosphere triangular warfare’ as a stepping stone toward the next generation of microbiome-based agriculture and precision rhizosphere engineering under environmental changes.
SN - 1664-462X
ER -