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Peer-reviewedCC BY-NC-NDNature Communications

An X-linked sex determination mechanism in cannabis and hop

  • Sarah B. Carey1
  • Philip C. Bentz1
  • John T. Lovell1
  • Laramie M. Akozbek2,1
  • Zachary Myers1
  • Walid Korani1
  • Joshua S. Havill3
  • Lillian K. Padgitt‐Cobb4
  • Ryan C. Lynch4
  • Nicholas A. Allsing4
  • Jack Mangels5
  • Zachary J. Stansell6,7
20 more authors
  • George M. Stack6,7
  • Tyler C. Gordon7
  • Austin Osmanski1
  • Katherine A. Easterling8,9
  • Leonardo R. Orozco10
  • Zach E Marcus10
  • Haley J. Hale1
  • Hanna J. McCoy1
  • Zachary Meharg2,1
  • Jane Grimwood1
  • Lawrence B. Smart6
  • Daniela Vergara10
  • Rafael F. Guerrero11
  • Nolan C. Kane10
  • Rich Fletcher5
  • John K. McKay12,5
  • Todd P. Michael13,14,15,4
  • Gary J. Muehlbauer3
  • Josh Paul Clevenger1
  • Alex Harkess16
16 affiliations
  1. 1HudsonAlpha Institute for Biotechnology, Huntsville, AL, USA
  2. 2Department of Crop, Soil, and Environmental Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
  3. 3Department of Agronomy and Plant Genetics, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA
  4. 4The Plant Molecular and Cellular Biology Laboratory, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, USA
  5. 5New West Genetics, Windsor, CO, USA
  6. 6Horticulture Section, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Geneva, NY, USA
  7. 7Plant Genetic Resources Unit, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Geneva, NY, USA
  8. 8Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Wapato, WA, USA
  9. 9Science and Math Department, Tallahassee State College, FL, Tallahassee, USA
  10. 10Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
  11. 11Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
  12. 12Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
  13. 13Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institute of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
  14. 14Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, School of Biological Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
  15. 15Department of Science and Conservation, San Diego Botanical Garden, Encinitas, CA, USA
  16. 16HudsonAlpha Institute for Biotechnology, Huntsville, AL, USA. [email protected]
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Abstract

Sex chromosomes in cannabis and hop were identified a century ago because of their obvious visible differences in size (heteromorphy). However, we know little about the genes they contain that control the development of the inflorescences. Here we assembled genomes, with phased sex chromosomes, for hop and cannabis. The XY chromosomes share an origin prior to the divergence between the genera >36 MYA. Due to the inheritance patterns of the XYs, the male-specific region of the Y is highly-degenerated, with substantial gene loss, while the X shows faster rates of molecular evolution. Consistent with the theory that these species lack an active-Y system, no clear sex-determining genes reside on the Y. Instead, an X-linked homolog of aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate synthase (ACS), that is involved in the ethylene biosynthesis pathway, determines the fate of the female inflorescence. Beyond sex determination, the sex chromosomes contribute to the sexual dimorphism in ecology and physiology and have played a role in the domestication and breeding of these species.

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Cite

BibTeXRIS
BibTeX
@article{carey2026xlinked,
  title = {{An X-linked sex determination mechanism in cannabis and hop}},
  author = {Sarah B. Carey and Philip C. Bentz and John T. Lovell and Laramie M. Akozbek and Zachary Myers and Walid Korani and Joshua S. Havill and Lillian K. Padgitt‐Cobb and Ryan C. Lynch and Nicholas A. Allsing and Jack Mangels and Zachary J. Stansell and George M. Stack and Tyler C. Gordon and Austin Osmanski and Katherine A. Easterling and Leonardo R. Orozco and Zach E Marcus and Haley J. Hale and Hanna J. McCoy and Zachary Meharg and Jane Grimwood and Lawrence B. Smart and Daniela Vergara and Rafael F. Guerrero and Nolan C. Kane and Rich Fletcher and John K. McKay and Todd P. Michael and Gary J. Muehlbauer and Josh Paul Clevenger and Alex Harkess},
  journal = {Nature Communications},
  year = {2026},
  month = may,
  doi = {10.1038/s41467-026-73233-7},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-026-73233-7},
  note = {CC BY-NC-ND},
}
RIS
TY  - JOUR
TI  - An X-linked sex determination mechanism in cannabis and hop
AU  - Sarah B. Carey
AU  - Philip C. Bentz
AU  - John T. Lovell
AU  - Laramie M. Akozbek
AU  - Zachary Myers
AU  - Walid Korani
AU  - Joshua S. Havill
AU  - Lillian K. Padgitt‐Cobb
AU  - Ryan C. Lynch
AU  - Nicholas A. Allsing
AU  - Jack Mangels
AU  - Zachary J. Stansell
AU  - George M. Stack
AU  - Tyler C. Gordon
AU  - Austin Osmanski
AU  - Katherine A. Easterling
AU  - Leonardo R. Orozco
AU  - Zach E Marcus
AU  - Haley J. Hale
AU  - Hanna J. McCoy
AU  - Zachary Meharg
AU  - Jane Grimwood
AU  - Lawrence B. Smart
AU  - Daniela Vergara
AU  - Rafael F. Guerrero
AU  - Nolan C. Kane
AU  - Rich Fletcher
AU  - John K. McKay
AU  - Todd P. Michael
AU  - Gary J. Muehlbauer
AU  - Josh Paul Clevenger
AU  - Alex Harkess
PY  - 2026
DA  - 2026/05/26
JO  - Nature Communications
DO  - 10.1038/s41467-026-73233-7
UR  - https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-026-73233-7
AB  - Sex chromosomes in cannabis and hop were identified a century ago because of their obvious visible differences in size (heteromorphy). However, we know little about the genes they contain that control the development of the inflorescences. Here we assembled genomes, with phased sex chromosomes, for hop and cannabis. The XY chromosomes share an origin prior to the divergence between the genera >36 MYA. Due to the inheritance patterns of the XYs, the male-specific region of the Y is highly-degenerated, with substantial gene loss, while the X shows faster rates of molecular evolution. Consistent with the theory that these species lack an active-Y system, no clear sex-determining genes reside on the Y. Instead, an X-linked homolog of aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate synthase (ACS), that is involved in the ethylene biosynthesis pathway, determines the fate of the female inflorescence. Beyond sex determination, the sex chromosomes contribute to the sexual dimorphism in ecology and physiology and have played a role in the domestication and breeding of these species.
SN  - 2041-1723
ER  -