The Association of Type 2 Diabetes and Hypothyroidism with the Composition and Antioxidant Properties of Human Milk: A Cross-Sectional Study
- 1Department of Perinatology, Gynecology and Gynecologic Oncology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Łukasiewicza 1, 85-821 Bydgoszcz, Poland
- 2Department of Pathobiochemistry and Clinical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University, M. Curie-Skłodowskiej 9, 85-094 Bydgoszcz, Poland
- 32nd Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Medical University of Gdańsk, 80-210 Gdansk, Poland
Abstract
Background: Thyroid disorders and diabetes are among the most common endocrine and metabolic conditions affecting pregnant women. It is important to note that adequate serum thyroid hormone levels are essential for proper lactation. Diabetes, in turn, is associated with delayed lactogenesis, especially in cases of poor glycemic control. It should be emphasized that breastfeeding is globally recognized as the safest and most effective method of feeding infants. Human milk has a variable nutritional composition in distinct phases: colostrum, transitional milk, and mature milk. Methods: The present observational cross-sectional study included 208 breastfeeding women between 3 and 12 months postpartum: 79 women with hypothyroidism, 53 women with type 2 diabetes, and 76 healthy controls. An analysis was conducted on a sample of human milk to determine its basic nutritional composition, cortisol concentration, and antioxidant status. This analysis utilized DPPH and FRAP assays, which are methods employed to assess the antioxidant capacity of a sample. The basic composition of human milk was analyzed using the MIRIS HMATM analyzer (Uppsala, Sweden). Cortisol levels were determined using an immunoenzymatic method. Results: In unadjusted analyses, milk fat content was higher in women with hypothyroidism and lower in women with type 2 diabetes compared with the control group. However, these differences were no longer statistically significant after adjustment for maternal and clinical covariates in multiple regression analyses. A lower reduction in the DPPH radical was shown in the milk of women with type 2 diabetes (13.8%) and in the milk of women with hypothyroidism (29%) compared to the control group. In the group of women with type 2 diabetes, cortisol levels positively correlated with the protein content and caloric content of milk. It was also noted that BMI in this group was significantly associated with the caloric content of human milk. Conclusions: These findings demonstrate differences in selected characteristics of human milk among the studied groups; however, their clinical relevance for infant health cannot be determined from the present study, as infant growth, body composition, and developmental outcomes were not assessed. Further prospective studies incorporating infant outcomes are needed to determine the clinical significance of these observations.
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BibTeX
@article{dombrowskapali2026association,
title = {{The Association of Type 2 Diabetes and Hypothyroidism with the Composition and Antioxidant Properties of Human Milk: A Cross-Sectional Study}},
author = {Agnieszka Dombrowska-Pali and Agnieszka Chrustek and Dorota Olszewska-Słonina and Maciej W. Socha},
journal = {Nutrients},
year = {2026},
month = nov,
doi = {10.3390/nu18213713},
url = {https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/18/21/3713},
note = {CC BY 4.0},
}
RIS
TY - JOUR
TI - The Association of Type 2 Diabetes and Hypothyroidism with the Composition and Antioxidant Properties of Human Milk: A Cross-Sectional Study
AU - Agnieszka Dombrowska-Pali
AU - Agnieszka Chrustek
AU - Dorota Olszewska-Słonina
AU - Maciej W. Socha
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/11/09
JO - Nutrients
DO - 10.3390/nu18213713
UR - https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/18/21/3713
AB - Background: Thyroid disorders and diabetes are among the most common endocrine and metabolic conditions affecting pregnant women. It is important to note that adequate serum thyroid hormone levels are essential for proper lactation. Diabetes, in turn, is associated with delayed lactogenesis, especially in cases of poor glycemic control. It should be emphasized that breastfeeding is globally recognized as the safest and most effective method of feeding infants. Human milk has a variable nutritional composition in distinct phases: colostrum, transitional milk, and mature milk. Methods: The present observational cross-sectional study included 208 breastfeeding women between 3 and 12 months postpartum: 79 women with hypothyroidism, 53 women with type 2 diabetes, and 76 healthy controls. An analysis was conducted on a sample of human milk to determine its basic nutritional composition, cortisol concentration, and antioxidant status. This analysis utilized DPPH and FRAP assays, which are methods employed to assess the antioxidant capacity of a sample. The basic composition of human milk was analyzed using the MIRIS HMATM analyzer (Uppsala, Sweden). Cortisol levels were determined using an immunoenzymatic method. Results: In unadjusted analyses, milk fat content was higher in women with hypothyroidism and lower in women with type 2 diabetes compared with the control group. However, these differences were no longer statistically significant after adjustment for maternal and clinical covariates in multiple regression analyses. A lower reduction in the DPPH radical was shown in the milk of women with type 2 diabetes (13.8%) and in the milk of women with hypothyroidism (29%) compared to the control group. In the group of women with type 2 diabetes, cortisol levels positively correlated with the protein content and caloric content of milk. It was also noted that BMI in this group was significantly associated with the caloric content of human milk. Conclusions: These findings demonstrate differences in selected characteristics of human milk among the studied groups; however, their clinical relevance for infant health cannot be determined from the present study, as infant growth, body composition, and developmental outcomes were not assessed. Further prospective studies incorporating infant outcomes are needed to determine the clinical significance of these observations.
SN - 2072-6643
ER -