Traumatic brain injury (TBI): From classification to mechanistic insights
7 affiliations
- 1Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, El Saleheya El Gadida University, El Saleheya El Gadida 44813, Egypt; [email protected]
- 2Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt
- 3Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, October 6 University, Sixth of October City 12585, Egypt
- 4Faculty of Pharmacy - Suez Canal University
- 5Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Suez Canal University, Ismailia 41522, Egypt
- 6Department of Pathology, Faculty of veterinary medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
- 7Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Zagazig University, Egypt Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, El Saleheya El Gadida University, El Saleheya El Gadida 44813, Egypt;
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a leading global public health issue, with an estimated 50–60 million people affected annually. TBI is the primary cause of death and disability among young individuals, and nearly half the world’s population is expected to experience a TBI at some point in their lives. Most TBIs are classified as mild, but even mild injuries can have significant long-term effects. Mild repetitive traumatic brain injury (mRTBI), involving multiple TBIs over time and often seen in contact sports athletes and military personnel, leads to cumulative neurological damage and a higher risk of chronic neurodegenerative diseases such as chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), Alzheimer’s disease (AD), and Parkinson’s disease (PD). These repetitive injuries are associated with more severe and persistent cognitive, behavioral, and emotional disturbances than a single TBI.The pathophysiology of mRTBI is multifactorial, involving primary and secondary injury mechanisms including overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS), loss of neuronal membrane integrity, excitatory neurotransmitter release, and microglial activation. These processes disrupt neurotrophic signaling, promote neuroinflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, apoptosis, and autophagy. These injuries disrupt brain physiology, leading to cognitive, behavioral, and motor deficits, as well as systemic effects. The present review offers detailed overview of TBI including classification, epidemiology, and public health impact as long as pathophysiological Mechanisms.
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BibTeX
@article{abdallah2026traumatic,
title = {{Traumatic brain injury (TBI): From classification to mechanistic insights}},
author = {Mohamed Abdallah and Alaa Wahba and Amira El-Gazar and Dina Abo-El-Matty and Noha Mesbah and Mohammed Sobh and Gehad Elnagar},
journal = {Records of Pharmaceutical \& Biomedical Sciences},
year = {2026},
month = oct,
doi = {10.21608/rpbs.2026.501961.1428},
url = {https://doi.org/10.21608/rpbs.2026.501961.1428},
note = {CC BY},
}
RIS
TY - JOUR
TI - Traumatic brain injury (TBI): From classification to mechanistic insights
AU - Mohamed Abdallah
AU - Alaa Wahba
AU - Amira El-Gazar
AU - Dina Abo-El-Matty
AU - Noha Mesbah
AU - Mohammed Sobh
AU - Gehad Elnagar
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/10/25
JO - Records of Pharmaceutical & Biomedical Sciences
DO - 10.21608/rpbs.2026.501961.1428
UR - https://doi.org/10.21608/rpbs.2026.501961.1428
AB - Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a leading global public health issue, with an estimated 50–60 million people affected annually. TBI is the primary cause of death and disability among young individuals, and nearly half the world’s population is expected to experience a TBI at some point in their lives. Most TBIs are classified as mild, but even mild injuries can have significant long-term effects. Mild repetitive traumatic brain injury (mRTBI), involving multiple TBIs over time and often seen in contact sports athletes and military personnel, leads to cumulative neurological damage and a higher risk of chronic neurodegenerative diseases such as chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), Alzheimer’s disease (AD), and Parkinson’s disease (PD). These repetitive injuries are associated with more severe and persistent cognitive, behavioral, and emotional disturbances than a single TBI.The pathophysiology of mRTBI is multifactorial, involving primary and secondary injury mechanisms including overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS), loss of neuronal membrane integrity, excitatory neurotransmitter release, and microglial activation. These processes disrupt neurotrophic signaling, promote neuroinflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, apoptosis, and autophagy. These injuries disrupt brain physiology, leading to cognitive, behavioral, and motor deficits, as well as systemic effects. The present review offers detailed overview of TBI including classification, epidemiology, and public health impact as long as pathophysiological Mechanisms.
SN - 2535-2091
SN - 2536-9857
ER -