The infinitesimal surgeon: nanomachines and upconversion nanoparticles
- 1Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, 99 George Street, Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom, G1 1RD
Abstract
The concept of the infinitesimal machine surgeon: a tiny nano-sized machine with moving parts “akin to a little knife”; which is guided to a biological target; and which is human controlled via an electromagnetic input; was loosely envisaged by Feynman two influential lectures in 1959 and 1983. In this perspective, we examine how chemistry – not physics - may be on the cusp on creating a true infinitesimal machine surgeon. We extract four key criteria for an infinitesimal machine surgeon. We set out how nanomachines – light activated molecular rotors – can trigger cell death via mechanical action, and highlight the recently demonstrated combination of nanomachines and photonic upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs), which enable control of nanomachines with near-infrared (NIR) light. This advancement conceivably enables the ability to control nanomachines in deep tissue (> 1 cm) using diffuse NIR illumination, surpassing depth limits of conventional and two photon excitation (2PE) of nanomachines. We set out directions for future development of nanomachines and UCNPs, for deep-tissue applications, including opportunities for targeted delivery and multi-modal tracking. With sufficient development, we expect the conjunction of UCNPs and nanomachines can fulfil all four criteria to be considered an infinitesimal machine surgeon.
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BibTeX
@misc{mackenzie2026infinitesimal,
title = {{The infinitesimal surgeon: nanomachines and upconversion nanoparticles}},
author = {Lewis E. MacKenzie},
howpublished = {ChemRxiv},
year = {2026},
month = sep,
doi = {10.26434/chemrxiv.15008974/v1},
url = {https://chemrxiv.org/doi/full/10.26434/chemrxiv.15008974/v1},
note = {CC BY-NC-ND},
}
RIS
TY - UNPB
TI - The infinitesimal surgeon: nanomachines and upconversion nanoparticles
AU - Lewis E. MacKenzie
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/09/17
PB - ChemRxiv
DO - 10.26434/chemrxiv.15008974/v1
UR - https://chemrxiv.org/doi/full/10.26434/chemrxiv.15008974/v1
AB - The concept of the infinitesimal machine surgeon: a tiny nano-sized machine with moving parts “akin to a little knife”; which is guided to a biological target; and which is human controlled via an electromagnetic input; was loosely envisaged by Feynman two influential lectures in 1959 and 1983. In this perspective, we examine how chemistry – not physics - may be on the cusp on creating a true infinitesimal machine surgeon. We extract four key criteria for an infinitesimal machine surgeon. We set out how nanomachines – light activated molecular rotors – can trigger cell death via mechanical action, and highlight the recently demonstrated combination of nanomachines and photonic upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs), which enable control of nanomachines with near-infrared (NIR) light. This advancement conceivably enables the ability to control nanomachines in deep tissue (> 1 cm) using diffuse NIR illumination, surpassing depth limits of conventional and two photon excitation (2PE) of nanomachines. We set out directions for future development of nanomachines and UCNPs, for deep-tissue applications, including opportunities for targeted delivery and multi-modal tracking. With sufficient development, we expect the conjunction of UCNPs and nanomachines can fulfil all four criteria to be considered an infinitesimal machine surgeon.
ER -