AI-assisted IVF company websites: a content analysis of marketing claims, information quality, legal and ethical issues.
- 1Faculty of Law, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau SAR, China.
- 2Asia-Pacific Academy of Economics and Management, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau SAR, China.
Abstract
Study question
How do providers of AI-assisted IVF products and services present their AI systems, characterize their products and services, and address patient privacy and data protection concerns on their websites?Summary answer
Websites of AI-assisted IVF providers predominantly emphasize benefits while failing to disclose risks, provide insufficient information about AI systems and data sources, and inadequately address privacy protection, with none of them including AI-specific provisions in their privacy policies.What is known already
Websites promoting AI-assisted products and services for IVF treatments are a key information source for patients, can shape perceptions about this advanced technology, and have an impact on patients' treatment decisions. However, the way providers present such services on their websites has not been previously studied.Study design size duration
Using online searches and a review of research abstracts presented at the 2022 ESHRE annual meeting, we identified 21 companies offering AI-assisted IVF products or services. Website content was captured between 15 and 22 August 2023, and content analysis was done between 25 August and 15 September 2023. In response to an external reviewer's recommendation, we did a follow-up review on 30 June 2026.Participants/materials setting methods
Twenty-one companies (7 IVF equipment producers, 14 exclusively developing AI-assisted IVF products) based in Europe (n = 9), Israel (n = 4), Canada/USA (n = 5), and China (n = 3) were evaluated in this study. The companies collectively offered 30 AI tools including embryo quality assessment, oocyte quality assessment, sperm analysis, endometrial receptivity analysis, and ovarian stimulation optimization. A subset of 10 companies' websites was used for thematic content analysis and the resulting themes were used to develop a coding book with 22 questions examining (i) benefit and risk descriptions; (ii) AI system explanations and performance; (iii) data protection and privacy issues; and (iv) portrayal of products/services. The coding book was finalized and subsequently applied by one of the authors to complete an analysis of the entire dataset. Based on an external reviewer's suggestion, we also analyzed the AI models on providers' websites. Independent coding of 60% of samples achieved almost perfect inter-coder agreement (Cohen's Kappa: 0.831-1.000).Main results and the role of chance
All 21 websites (100%) mentioned benefits of AI-assisted IVF, with the most frequently cited benefit being 'increased accuracy' (specific to each provider's product or service) (61.9%, n = 13). However, no websites explicitly outlined potential risks associated with AI use. Twenty companies (95.2%) described their AI systems, yet only 33.3% (n = 7) disclosed sample sizes used for AI development, and only 23.8% (n = 5) indicated dataset diversity or representativeness. Although 13 websites (61.9%) provided links to privacy policies, none included provisions specifically addressing patient health data processing when using AI products or services. Eight websites (38.1%) mentioned data protection measures on product introduction pages (e.g. encryption, de-identification), with five referencing GDPR compliance and three referencing HIPAA compliance. Nine companies (42.9%) marketed products as unique or 'first' in the IVF industry; six (28.6%) mentioned patent information. Nineteen companies (90.5%) required clinician oversight or final decision-making, while two companies employed direct-to-consumer (DTC) marketing models.Limitations reasons for caution
The analysis was limited to 21 companies identified through the ESHRE 2022 annual meeting and Google searches and may not fully reflect all concerns associated with AI-assisted IVF products. Findings reflect documented website claims rather than independently verified compliance status. The analysis did not capture the technical development, supply chain, or hosting arrangements of the AI tools. Website content is dynamic and may have changed since data collection.Wider implications of the findings
The study reveals limited transparency of AI systems, unsubstantiated claims about AI efficacy for improving IVF success rates, and downplaying of relevant risks on provider websites. This inaccurate portrayal may distort patient expectations and compromise informed decision-making. The DTC AI-assisted IVF products-a model in which AI product suppliers bypass professional healthcare providers to market and sell directly to consumers-carry heightened risks for patients. The study advocates that AI providers (i) adhere strictly to truthful advertising regulations with balanced risk disclosure; (ii) proactively disclose AI system information through layperson-friendly explanations and separate AI-specific privacy policies; and (iii) establish ethics review mechanisms to verify claims and develop patient-centric communication materials. These measures are essential for responsible AI communication in reproductive medicine.Funding
This study was supported by the University of Macau via the MYRG project MYRG2023-00025-FLL and APAEM/SG/0002/2025.Disclosures
Both authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.Trial registration number
N/A.
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BibTeX
@article{du2026aiassisted,
title = {{AI-assisted IVF company websites: a content analysis of marketing claims, information quality, legal and ethical issues.}},
author = {Li Du and Yinuo Zhang},
journal = {Human reproduction open},
year = {2026},
month = sep,
doi = {10.1093/hropen/hoag086},
url = {https://europepmc.org/article/MED/42923733},
note = {CC BY},
}
RIS
TY - JOUR
TI - AI-assisted IVF company websites: a content analysis of marketing claims, information quality, legal and ethical issues.
AU - Li Du
AU - Yinuo Zhang
PY - 2026
DA - 2026/09/30
JO - Human reproduction open
DO - 10.1093/hropen/hoag086
UR - https://europepmc.org/article/MED/42923733
AB - Study question How do providers of AI-assisted IVF products and services present their AI systems, characterize their products and services, and address patient privacy and data protection concerns on their websites?Summary answer Websites of AI-assisted IVF providers predominantly emphasize benefits while failing to disclose risks, provide insufficient information about AI systems and data sources, and inadequately address privacy protection, with none of them including AI-specific provisions in their privacy policies.What is known already Websites promoting AI-assisted products and services for IVF treatments are a key information source for patients, can shape perceptions about this advanced technology, and have an impact on patients' treatment decisions. However, the way providers present such services on their websites has not been previously studied.Study design size duration Using online searches and a review of research abstracts presented at the 2022 ESHRE annual meeting, we identified 21 companies offering AI-assisted IVF products or services. Website content was captured between 15 and 22 August 2023, and content analysis was done between 25 August and 15 September 2023. In response to an external reviewer's recommendation, we did a follow-up review on 30 June 2026.Participants/materials setting methods Twenty-one companies (7 IVF equipment producers, 14 exclusively developing AI-assisted IVF products) based in Europe (n = 9), Israel (n = 4), Canada/USA (n = 5), and China (n = 3) were evaluated in this study. The companies collectively offered 30 AI tools including embryo quality assessment, oocyte quality assessment, sperm analysis, endometrial receptivity analysis, and ovarian stimulation optimization. A subset of 10 companies' websites was used for thematic content analysis and the resulting themes were used to develop a coding book with 22 questions examining (i) benefit and risk descriptions; (ii) AI system explanations and performance; (iii) data protection and privacy issues; and (iv) portrayal of products/services. The coding book was finalized and subsequently applied by one of the authors to complete an analysis of the entire dataset. Based on an external reviewer's suggestion, we also analyzed the AI models on providers' websites. Independent coding of 60% of samples achieved almost perfect inter-coder agreement (Cohen's Kappa: 0.831-1.000).Main results and the role of chance All 21 websites (100%) mentioned benefits of AI-assisted IVF, with the most frequently cited benefit being 'increased accuracy' (specific to each provider's product or service) (61.9%, n = 13). However, no websites explicitly outlined potential risks associated with AI use. Twenty companies (95.2%) described their AI systems, yet only 33.3% (n = 7) disclosed sample sizes used for AI development, and only 23.8% (n = 5) indicated dataset diversity or representativeness. Although 13 websites (61.9%) provided links to privacy policies, none included provisions specifically addressing patient health data processing when using AI products or services. Eight websites (38.1%) mentioned data protection measures on product introduction pages (e.g. encryption, de-identification), with five referencing GDPR compliance and three referencing HIPAA compliance. Nine companies (42.9%) marketed products as unique or 'first' in the IVF industry; six (28.6%) mentioned patent information. Nineteen companies (90.5%) required clinician oversight or final decision-making, while two companies employed direct-to-consumer (DTC) marketing models.Limitations reasons for caution The analysis was limited to 21 companies identified through the ESHRE 2022 annual meeting and Google searches and may not fully reflect all concerns associated with AI-assisted IVF products. Findings reflect documented website claims rather than independently verified compliance status. The analysis did not capture the technical development, supply chain, or hosting arrangements of the AI tools. Website content is dynamic and may have changed since data collection.Wider implications of the findings The study reveals limited transparency of AI systems, unsubstantiated claims about AI efficacy for improving IVF success rates, and downplaying of relevant risks on provider websites. This inaccurate portrayal may distort patient expectations and compromise informed decision-making. The DTC AI-assisted IVF products-a model in which AI product suppliers bypass professional healthcare providers to market and sell directly to consumers-carry heightened risks for patients. The study advocates that AI providers (i) adhere strictly to truthful advertising regulations with balanced risk disclosure; (ii) proactively disclose AI system information through layperson-friendly explanations and separate AI-specific privacy policies; and (iii) establish ethics review mechanisms to verify claims and develop patient-centric communication materials. These measures are essential for responsible AI communication in reproductive medicine.Funding This study was supported by the University of Macau via the MYRG project MYRG2023-00025-FLL and APAEM/SG/0002/2025.Disclosures Both authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.Trial registration number N/A.
SN - 2399-3529
ER -